Judaica 1942 Palestina Israel Petición Segunda Guerra Mundial Holocausto refugiados judíos barco DARIEN

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Vendedor: memorabilia111 ✉️ (808) 100%, Ubicación del artículo: Ann Arbor, Michigan, US, Realiza envíos a: US y muchos otros países, Número de artículo: 176278959762 Judaica 1942 Palestina Israel Petición Segunda Guerra Mundial Holocausto refugiados judíos barco DARIEN. Judaica 1942 Palestine Israel Petition WW2 Holocaust Jewish Refugees Immigrants הועד הלאומי לכנסת ישראל בארץ ישראל עצומת הישוב ".. אנו קוראים לעם בריטניה, לנבחריו ולממשלתו: הבו מפלט לנודדי ישראל ופליטיו בביתם הלאומי ובמולדתם. אל יהי גורל הבורחים מרדיפות הנאצים כגורל אנשי "סלבדור" ו"סטרומה" - טביעה בים. יועמד דבר האסון של "סטרומה" לחקירה בפני ועדה פרלמנטרית. יקרא דרור לאנשי "דריאן" ותנתן שיבה ופדות לכל הניצולים. קולי, עם קול אחי הקוראים למפלט. National Committee for the Knesset of Israel in the Land of Israel The petition's settlement ".. We call on the people of Britain, his elected officials and his government: make refuge for the migrants of Israel and its refugees in their national home and homeland. The fate of those fleeing the Nazi persecution will not be the fate of "Salvador" and "Stroma" - to sink at sea. The "Stroma" disaster will be investigated for a parliamentary committee. Freedom for the people of "Darian" and a return to all survivors. My voice, with my brother's voice calling for refuge. . . . The Struma disaster was the sinking on 24 February 1942 of a ship, MV Struma, which had been trying to take nearly 800 Jewish refugees from the Axis member Romania to Mandatory Palestine. She was a small iron-hulled ship of only 240 GRT and had been built in 1867 as a steam-powered schooner[3] but had recently been re-engined with an unreliable second-hand diesel engine.[4][5] Struma was only 148.4 ft (45 m) long, had a beam of only 19.3 ft (6 m) and a draught of only 9.9 ft (3 m)[6][3] but an estimated 781 refugees and 10 crew were crammed into her.[7][2] Struma's diesel engine failed several times between her departure from Constanţa on the Black Sea on 12 December 1941 and her arrival in Istanbul on 15 December. She had to be towed by a tug boat to leave Constanţa and to enter Istanbul. On 23 February 1942, with her engine still inoperable and her refugee passengers aboard, Turkish authorities towed Struma from Istanbul through the Bosphorus out to the coast of Şile, in North Istanbul. Within hours, on the morning of 24 February, the Soviet submarine Shch-213 torpedoed her, killing 781 refugees[1] and 10 crew, which made it the Black Sea's largest exclusively-civilian naval disaster of World War II. Until recently, the number of victims had been estimated at 768,[8] but the current figure is the result of a recent study of six different passenger lists.[7] Only one person aboard, the 19-year-old David Stoliar, survived (he died in 2014). The Struma disaster joined that of SS Patria, which was sunk after Haganah sabotage while she was laden with Jewish refugees 15 months earlier, as rallying points for the Irgun and Lehi revisionist Zionist clandestine movements, encouraging their campaign against the British colonial government.[9][10] One affair in the early years of World War II caused much tragedy and frustration. In October 1940, three rusty old steamers arrived in Haifa from Romania. The Pacific, the Atlantic, and the Milos (all built in the 1800s) carried more than 3,400 Jewish refugees on board, most having fled Germany, Austria, and Czechoslovakia on river boats down the Danube, before boarding the three small steamships at Tulcea. However, the immigrants received the usual cold reception by the British authorities, who decided to board everyone on the former French liner Patria for deportation to the island of Mauritius. The SS Patria The SS Patria (Source: Naval History & Heritage Command) Pressed for time, the Haganah (Jewish paramilitary organization and predecessor of today’s IDF) came up with the audacious plan to smuggle a bomb onboard the Patria, small enough to cause only technical damage and prevent the ship from leaving port. But improvised explosive devices tend to be unpredictable, and the detonation on the morning of November 25th blew such a large hole in the hull that the Patria sank within a quarter of an hour, killing 260 people. The rest were either allowed to stay in Palestine or suffered deportation to Mauritius on other vessels. Later that year, the sailboat Salvador became an outrageous example of what despair does to people. Setting out from Varna with 352 immigrants on board, she was supposed to be towed to Istanbul, but the Bulgarian tugboat Voevoda only hauled her out to sea and left her to the elements. Another tug was urgently sent out of Istanbul, where the Salvador and her passengers waited five days, before being once again towed out and left adrift. Without any adequate equipment at his disposal, the captain made one final attempt to sail back to Istanbul, but the overloaded vessel ran aground near Silivri and literally fell apart. 238 people, of which 66 children, died from drowning or hypothermia. Only a few reached the shore to receive first aid from local residents. __________________________________________________________________________________________ After the German army conquered Poland on September 1939, the Nazis wanted to send all the Jews that remained in the Germany and Austria to Lublin area in Poland. This idea for the solution of the "Jewish Problem" didn't come about, yet it caused much anxiety to the local Jewish leaders. On November 1939 Ehud Avriel, head of the "Halutz" and a Mossad envoy in Vienna, got permission from Eichmann to take out 822 Jews from Vienna to Bratislava in Slovakia. They were joined by 130 refugees from Germany and 50 from Gdansk. They boarded a German Ship, "Uranus". For that the ship could be allowed to sail, Ehud Avriel went to Bratislava and bribed the police chief, because at that time in Slovakia was a pro-Nazi regime. The "Uranus" sailed towards Yugoslavia, past Budapest (Hungary) and had to return to Bratislava. The Yugoslavian authorities refused to let the ship pass throw with a Nazi flag. (This explanation is strange, as the Danube is an International waterway and Yugoslavia could not refuse to give passage. Most probably the German ship company didn't want to risk the ship.) Avriel that had already reached Trieste in Italy on his way to immigrate legally to Eretz - Israel wanted to return to Vienna and to try to solve the problem. In the meantime Mossad activists with the help of Max Spitzer, President of the Jewish congregations of Yugoslavia, hired three Yugoslavian river boats. That waited for the refugees on the border. The Uranus sailed again and at the Yugoslavian border the refugees transferred to the three boats, "Tzar Dusha" "Tzar Nickolai" "Tzarina Marina". The 3 river boats sailed down the Danube and reached Kladovo near the Rumanian border where they had to stop. The Yugoslavian boat company refused to continue unless there is a ship waiting for them on the Black Sea, because if not the boats wouldn't be able to return before the Danube freezes. Kladovo was a small Gipsy village with a winter boat anchorage. The refugees remained on the boats as the river froze not allowed to leave them. After some time they were allowed ashore for a few hours a day, to walk 25 meters under guard. They spent the whole winter on the boats exposed to the snow and winds, without hot food or proper sanitation in horrible crowded quarters, waiting for the Mossad to find them a ship. Dr. Max Spitzer took care of them, bringing them food, letters etc' every two weeks. In March 1940 Moshe Agami from the Mossad visited them on his way from Geneva to Israel. In May 1940 the Yugoslavian boat company wanted the boats back. The refugees went ashore, huts were built for them, others lived with Gypsy families in the village and about 350 were lodged in a coal barge were sleeping bunks were installed. While the ships were in Kladovo 200 Yugoslavian youths joined the group, but as they saw nothing was happening they left, except for David family (Parents and 2 boys) that joined the boats on there way to Kladovo. In Kladovo and later in Shavetz 200 refugees from Germany and Poland joined the transport hoping to reach Eretz -Israel with them. The summer months passed in relative comfort. They did sport, played, learnt and had sing-song evenings. Couples fell in love and there were 15 marriages. Tirza describes "The Danube flowed, and everything was green", there she fell in Love with her husband to be General Dan Lener. In September Spitzer got permission to move the whole transport to Shavetz, a small town near Belgrade (the Capital). Some of the group lived in private houses, the Halutz (pioneers) group lived in a burnt flour mill, the boys in the first floor and the girls in the second, with a communal kitchen on the ground floor. In Shavetz was a small local Jewish community, around 70 persons with a synagogue, which became a school for 20 young kids. During November a few times the refugees got notice to pack. One time Spitzer ordered a train and supplies were loaded on the train, but in the end Spitzer cancelled the order and the supplies were taken off. The Despair returned as the second winter came. In March 1941 200 certificates for youngsters were received. They could leave in groups of 50 each time. 3 such groups left (including the 2 Yugoslavian boys from David family) and a few adult escorts, among them Ehud Nahir and Dan Lener. The fourth group didn't manage to leave before the German invasion to Yugoslavia, on 6th April 1941. After the German occupation all the people were imprisoned in a nearby concentration camp. In October 1941 all the men were taken to a field and shot dead. The women and a few children that remained behind were taken to a camp near Belgrade and from there on April-May 1941 put into "gas" trucks that went through the streets of Belgrade. Their bodies were thrown in some unknown field. As far as we know there were no survivors from the people that remained in Shavetz, except one couple that left just before the Germans came to Croatia and survived by chance in Italy. The remains of the men were moved to the Jewish Cemetery in Belgrade to a mass grave (The Memorial stone in the beginning of the film). The Darien ship After visiting Kladovo Agami came to Athens, there he met Shmarya Zameret and together, at end of May 1940, they bought from an old captain Slovakis a sea-ship that was registered in Panama as "Sofia S" (former Pole Star). Zameret changed her name to Darien in honor of the gulf in Panama and he became the registered owner of the ship. As there was another ship with the same name he added II to the Darien. The $40,000 dollars to buy the ship were received from the Joint in USA. At once after buying the ship Zameret prepared her for taking passengers, bunks in the storage and latrines at bow and stern. The plan was that the Darien would sail to a Yugoslavian port on the Adriatic Sea and peek up the refugees from Kladovo that would come by train. In the meantime the refugees at Kladovo were allowed to leave the river boats. This plan wasn't carried out. On the 10th of June Italy entered the war on Hitler's side, and sailing on the Adriatic Sea became impossible. Also the Zionist leaders in Tel-Aviv decided to stop the Aliya Beth (illegal immigration) and help the British in all out effort to stop the Nazis. The Zionist leadership believed that their support to the war efforts during the war will be taken into account after the war, and the British will support the interests of the Yishuv and the Zionist Movement. At this point David Hacohen, the liaison officer between the Hagana and the British intelligence, conceived the idea to sell the Darien to them to be used for sabotage purposes in the Balkans in cooperation with Hagana people. David Hacohen, Yehuda Arazi (from Hagana Intelligence unit) with Zeav Shind and Moshe Agami (Mossad people) traveled to Cairo and sold the Darien to the SOE (British intelligence unit) for 15,000 Sterling. It was agreed that Zameret will remain the registered owner, as being an American citizen would help in camouflaging her operations. In the meantime the Darien remained for 2 months in Athens and then in August was sent to Alexandria. After another month, in September, it was sent to Istanbul. Though the Darien was sold to the British it remained in the control of the Mossad and the "international" crew that was supplied by Pendlis (the Fat-Man). In September Golomb and Katzanelson sent Yehuda Brganiski, "Yulek". He was supposed to make sure that the Darien will be send to Rumania and get the refugees from Shavetz to Palestine (Eretz - Israel). Brganiski in his testimony says that he didn't know that the ship was sold to the British (Shind testified that he knew). In Istanbul Brganiski met Ruth Kliger that came from Romania. Brganiski had budget problems, money that was promised didn’t arrive. At the beginning of November the Darien arrived in Constanza in Romania and took legal immigrants to Istanbul. With the money he got from the Jewish agency for this trip he managed to send the Darien to Constanza again, to wait for the refugees from Shavetz. From the 7th November till the 30th the Darien waited in Constanza, but there was danger that the Fat-man's crew will take over the ship, so it was decide that a small group of immigrants (160), including Pioneers from Rumania and Poland together with some well off Jews that paid a big sum for the trip, will go aboard the Darien. The trip should have taken 2 weeks at most. Dr Max Seidman was appointed head of the Passengers committee, and he was told that Aba Berdichev, the Pioneer leader, will be the commander of the trip. The plan was that the Darien will sail to Sulina, a port on the Danube outflow and wait there for the refugees that will arrive by barges from Shavetz. So the ship waited the whole length of December, tied to the quay in Sulina and the passengers were not allowed to leave the ship. The passengers grumbled about their lingering in Sulina, though they knew in advance that it was one of the ship's missions. In 30th December it became clear that the refugees from Shavetz won't come because the Danube froze, so the Darien sailed back to Constanza. On the night of 31st December the Darien hit a reef (some belief that the captain did it on purpose so that the "Fat-man" would get the insurance Money). The women and children were taken by lifeboat ashore, the rest of the passengers took every measure to float the ship, and they threw overboard food, coal and gear. After 2 days a tugboat came and pulled the Darien to Constanza and was put into a dry-dock. The damage wasn't big but the repair took a long time and only on the 17th February 1941 it was allowed to sail again. During all this period the 160 passengers weren’t allowed ashore except once under police escort when they were taken to a hot-bath. In the meantime Shmarya Zameret arrived in Istanbul on his way back home to Eretz - Israel. Brganiski persuaded him to remain, his services were needed, he was an American Citizen and he was still the registered owner of the Darien. A short time later, at the beginning of December, came Zeav Shind with orders to hand over the Darien free of passengers to Arazi that is arriving in Istanbul. Together with Arazi came Joseph Barpal, because Shind didn't succeed in convincing Brganiski and Ruth that the orders were from the Leaders in Tel-Aviv. To improve the bad mood that came over the Mossad envoys in Istanbul, Barpal invited the group to a Russian restaurant on New-years eve. The group found themselves sitting in between 3 other groups, Germans, Italians and English, each singing there own songs. In the restaurant Ruth exchanges a few words with Whitehall, the British consul, and Brganiski suspected that Ruth is also in the "Cooperation" with the British. Next night the group met In Ruth's room in Park Hotel, and a hot debate ensued, in the end they voted (3 against 2) to hand over the Darien to Arazi. Yet none of them had the will or heart to inform Alexander "Azia" Shapira in Rumania, who was taking care of the repairs of the Darian, that he has to take off the passengers from the ship. After 3 sleepless nights Brganiski came to Ruth and the two decide to continue the operation in spite of the opinions of the other activists. That night they convinced Zameret to join the "Mutiny" and later on Barpal and Shind also joined it. Zameret went to Constanza to take care of the repairs, and had to promise the "Fat-man" half the ship if the sailing succeeds. At same time Shind traveled to Bulgaria to raise money and recruit more pioneers. On the 17th February the Darien left Constanza with 460 passengers on board, and reached Varna- Bulgaria next day. There it lost her anchor and drifted away from shore, but with the help of one of the passengers, Olaf Bergenson, it was safely tied to the quay. Bergenson a Norwegian, the only non-Jew among the passengers, was a ship agent as a young man and had also been a navy officer and had experience in sailing ships. The next day the Bulgarian authorities arrested the Captain and one of the sailors, and returned them only after 2 days. Aba Berdichev suspects the Captain and enclosed him under guard in his cabin and appointed Bergenson the Captain. Only on 28 February the Darien left Varna, after many delays, among them an idea that she'll tug a barge with 400 more people on it (this barge was later known as "Struma"). Yet when Shind got the news that the German Army has arrived in Bulgaria he gave an order to sail at once, he himself escaped from his hotel by the back door as the German officers arrived in the front door. The Darien left Varna with 750 people aboard, including 40 survivors from the "Salvador" disaster and some criminals that the Bulgarian police forced them to take. Just out of Varna the Darien met a ship sailing from Odessa with legal immigrants. The passengers from both ships stood and sang together, some say they sang the "Hatikva" others say the "Techezakna" ("Be stronger" in Hebrew), most probably both. On 2nd March the Darien arrived in Istanbul, collected 40 more Salvador survivors (that had remained in Istanbul) and a group of 15 refugees whose transit visas had expired. The Darien anchored in the Bosphorus up until Brganiski managed to raise money to buy coal. Meanwhile, David Hacohen arrived and tried to disembark the passengers on an unpopulated Greek island, but Brganiski sent the Darien on its way disregarding Hacochen. He hired an old Turkish Navigator who together with Bergenson managed to bring the Darien safely to Haifa, on the 19th March 1941. The Darien reached Haifa with 792 people on and was caught and confiscated by the British Mandate government. The Refugees were in Atlit detention camps for 15 to 18 months. Darien was the last boat of the Mossad before it started to operate again towards the end of the World War II. Historical Background In 30th January 1933 Hitler became Germany's Canceller (Prime Minister) and a short time after the Nazis came into power they started a systematic persecution of the Jews. Till the outbreak of World War II the Jews of Germany suffered humiliations, oppressions, dismiss from work-places and discrediting work licenses, all in one purpose to "purify" the Third Reich from Jews. They enacted racial anti-Semite laws, (The Nuremburg Acts in 1935) and deported Polish Jews back to Poland. With all its brutality the process was slow and reached a brutal climax at Kristalnacht (November 1938), widespread pogroms, that indicated that it was allowed to kill Jews. The German Jews were confused and frightened and reacted differently: some hoped that it will pass as other pogroms did in the past Jewish history; some organized the national organization of German Jews; many others decide to leave for America, South-Africa, Australia, Western Europe and Eretz-Israel (55,000 German Jews immigrated to Israel during the Fifth Aliya 1933-39). The German Jews were joined, in March 1938, by 180,000 Austrian Jews after the Anschluss (unification of Austria with Germany). The cruel and brutal persecutions of the Jews started immediately. At the head of the "Jewish" office in Vienna was Adolph Eichman that intended to "clear" Austria from Jews as quick as possible. The brutal methods used against the Jews and the belief that their lives and property are at danger caused many of them, 120,000, to leave Austria. Eichman cooperated with Jewish and Zionist organizations, and allowed "illegal ships" to leave toward Israel. The Jews were put on river boats and sent down on the Danube, which as International water allowed the boats to sail, because the countries that the Danube passes through are not allowed to stop the boats. This policy of letting the Jews escape continued at least till April 1940, in fact only in May 1941 it was officially stopped. One of the problems that both the Nazis and the Jews had was that nearly all the countries in the world closed their gates for Jewish refugees and didn't let them in. The British Mandate Government in Palestine didn't change the restrictions of the White Paper from 1939 that allowed only 75,000 Jews to enter Palestine over 5 years, with only 15,000 each year. The mass killings started after the invasion to Russia, June 1941 and the Wannsee conference where the "Final Solution" (complete annihilation of the Jewish Race) was declared was only in January 1942. From the 65,000 Austrian Jews were sent to concentration camps only 2,000 survived. The reaction of the "Yishuv" (Jews of Eretz-Israel) From 1934 onwards the "Ha'apala" (illegal immigration to Israel) by see has started to organize, mainly by the "Halutz" (Pioneer) movement. This movement was the parent organization of all the Zionist-Socialist Youth Movements that operated mainly in Europe and America. The Halutz that was founded in 1917 focused mainly in establishing training camps called "Kibbutzs" all over Europe. The ship "Vallus" was the first ship organized by the Halutz. 350 pioneers reached the shore of Israel in July 1934. The Revisionist Movement (led by Jabotinsky) also managed to bring to Israeli shores several ships: a convoy of 3 boats "Af Al Pi" (means Nevertheless) with 381 "Betar" members from Vienna; and the ships "Draga A" and "Draga B" that arrived in October-November 1938 with 730 immigrants. Also there were private organizations that brought Ma'apilim (illegal immigrants) to Israel as Dr. Baruch Confino from Bulgaria. Most of the times that the people got ashore without being caught were when the private and Revisionists operations cooperated with the Hagana (Mossad) that met the ships in mid-sea with small paddle boats. Officially the political Leadership of the Zionist Movement was against the "Ha'apala", it was afraid from deteriorating the relations between the "Yishuv" and the British authorities that at that time were trying to put down the Arab Revolt (1936-9). Only towards the end of 1938, disappointed from the recommendations of Peel commission not to establish a Jewish state, the leadership changed its opinion on Ha'apala. Then it was officially decided to establish the Mossad for Aliya Beth (institute for illegal immigration) in April 1939, though the Mossad started its operations already in 1938. The Mossad was a unit in the Hagana (semi-official army of the Yishuv) and Shaul Meirov-Avigor was appointed Commander. The goal of the Mossad was to organize the illegal immigration to Israel, by sending envoys to Europe. Up until the outbreak of the WW II, 22,000 immigrants reached Israel in illegal ships of the Mossad and the other organizations. During 1939-44 another 16,500 people sailed towards Israel. Yet there were disasters on the way, during the war some ships sank. In November 1940 the British caught 3 ships and wanted to deport the people to Mauritius Island. In one of the deportation ships "Patria" the Hagana wanted to do a small sabotage so stop the deportation, the charge was too big and the Patria sank. On board were 1,700 people, about 200 deportees and 50 British soldiers lost their life. A month later on December 1940, on Marmara Sea, the "Salvador" with 325 refugees from Bulgaria sank in a storm, about 200 drowned, 80 of the survivors came on the Darien to Israel. On February 1942 in the Black sea the "Struma" sank with 769 people from Rumania aboard, only one survived. The Struma waited with a broken engine in Istanbul, The British Government didn't let the refugees to continue by land to Israel so the Turks sent the ship into the Black sea, and there she was torpedoed by a Russian Submarine. The Last ship of the Mossad before the Darien was the "Hilda" that arrived in Haifa, on January 1940, the British put them in Athlit detention camp, but they were released after 3 months as a result of the Yishuv pressure on the British. During 1940 there were debates among the leaders of the Yishuv if to continue these sailings or to stop them till the end of the war, aiming to help in all out effort against the common enemy, the Nazis. After the "Struma" disaster it was agreed with the British that Jews reaching Istanbul by themselves will be allowed to continue by land and enter Eretz -Israel. The Mossad agents in Istanbul (Zeav Shind, Moshe Agami and Ehud Avriel) organized sailings from Rumania with 5,000 people that continued by train to Eretz - Israel. One of these ships the "Mafkora" was torpedoed by the Germans on its way to Istanbul, and only 5 survived from the 315 people on board. The Ha'apala from Europe during 1934-1948 Years By Sea Aliya Dalet (With faked certificates) By air By Land Total number of Immigrants No. of sailings No. of immigrants 1934 to Sep. 1939 50 21,670 21,670 Sep. 1939 Dec. 1944 25 16,456 16,456 1945 8 1,032 171 1,203 1946 22 21,673 459 22,132 1947 20 24,400 3,182 50 27,632 1948 14 22,458 5,277 27,735 Total 139 107,689 8,459 50 630 116,828 After WW II the Mossad reached the peak of its activity. In 3 years, 1945-1948, they bought and equip 62 ships that sailed 65 times. About 70,000 holocaust survivors sailed to Israel, most were caught and deported to Cyprus, a few managed to enter without being caught. The Mossad operated not only in Europe. During the war the Mossad directed its efforts to bring overland Jews from Arab countries, especially from Iraq after the pogrom in Baghdad in 1941. These efforts continued up until Israeli Independence. In all over about 120,000 Jews made the way to Israel by different methods, more then 108,500 by ships in 141 sailings, 150 by air, over 5,000 by land and about 9,000 by Aliya D (faked papers). Also many deserters from the Polish Andres Army remained in Israel (including Menachem Begin and Itzhak Shamir) and Jews that came as tourists or on transit visas and "forgot to leave", Laufer Family is an example for that method. Under Shaul Avigor's command served for long periods: Ehud Avriel, Moshe Agami, Ruth Kliger - Aliav, Yehuda Arazi, Yehuda Brganiski, Joseph Barpal, Yeshayahu Dan, Moshe Carmil, Ada Sireni, Vania Pomerantz- Hadari, Shmarya Zameret, Levi Shvartz, Zeav Shind and more. Timetable 1933 — Hitler becomes Germany's Chancellor March 1938 — AnshlussAustria becomes part of German Reich November 1938 — Kristalnacht, pogroms all over Germany. 1st September 1939 — Germany invades Poland, World War II starts. 29th November 1939 — Eichman gives permission for 1000 Jews to leave Vienna for Bratislava, they board the "Uranus" 15th December 1939 — Uranus reaches Yugoslavian border, 1000 Jewish refugees transfer to 3 river boats. 17th December 3 — River boats stop at Kladovo anchorage on the Danube near Rumanian border. January 1940 — Danube freezes. Ruth sends the "Hilda" with 728 refugees. May 1940 — Belguim & Holland surrender to German army. The refugees leave the river boats and live at the village of Kladovo. 29 May — Shmaria buys the Darien in Athens. June 1940 — The Zionist leaders decide to stop Aliya Beth. Shmarya gets orders to keep the Darien in Greece. June 1940 — German Army marches in Paris. Italy joins the war on German side. July 1940 — Arazi & Shind sell the Darien to S.O.E Special Operations Executive. August 1940 — Darien sails to Alexandria. September 1940 — Refugees go up the Danube to ShavetzYugoslavia. Brganiski, Ruth Kliger & Darien arrive in Istanbul. 9 November 1940 — Darien waits at ConstanzaRumania for refugees from Shavetz, Shmaria arrives in Istanbul. 20 November — Rumania & Bulgaria Join war on German side, prosecution of Jews in Rumania. 30 November — 160 Pioneers board the Darien and sail to SulinaDanube Delta. 12 December — Illegal boat "Salvador' sinks near Istanbul 202 refugees drown. Shind arrives in Istanbul. 30 December — Darien sails for Constanza hits a reef and dragged to Constanza. Barpal & Arazi come to Istanbul. 2 January 1941 — Meeting in Ruth's room, decision to hand over the Darien to Arazi. 5 January 1941 — They rebut their decision. 2123 January 1941 — Pogrom in Bucharest Rumania. 17 February 1941 — Darien repaired leaves Constanza with 450 refugees. 27 February 1941 — The Darien leaves VarnaBulgaria with 750 refugees including survivors from Salvador disaster. David Hacohen arrives in Istanbul. 11 March 1941 — Darien leaves Istanbul with 800 refugees. All Mossad personal leaving Ruth behind in Istanbul. March 1941 — 150 youths who got certificates leave Shavetz for Israel. 19 March 1941 — Darien arrives in Haifa, refugees enter detaintion camp for 18 months. 6 April — Germany invades Yugoslavia. October 1941 — All the men that remained in Shavetz shot into death trenches. AprilMay 1942 — Women & children of Shavetz murdered by Gas trucks. January 1945 — Ruth reaches Paris and meets Holocaust survivors. 7 May 1945 — Germany surrenders. Ruth Klieger Aliav Code name "Hanom" (Lady in Egyptian Arabic), 'Hamoavia" (The Moabian girl). According to her autobiography Ruth was born 1914 in Czernowitz —Rumania, but other evidence show that she was born in 1907, in Kiev- Ukraine. She was the youngest of many brothers and sisters of the Polishuk wealthy family. During WW I Ruth was left in the care of her aunt in a remote village while all her family fled away. Her family thought that she was dead, but the reunion happened after her picture as a little girl giving flowers to Habsburg Archduke Carl was published in a newspaper. From childhood she was in "Shomer Hatzair" (Zionist-Socialist youth movement) and prepared herself for "Aliya" and Kibbutz life. Yet before coming to Israel she studied at Vienna University and received a doctorate in Law. She also studied languages and was fluent in 9 languages. After marriage in 1935 she immigrated to Israel. The Kibbutz life and the marriage didn't fit her temperament especially after her only one-year old son died from meningitis. She decided to move to Tel-Aviv, where she worked in main office of the Histadrut, (Worker's Union) .There Berl Katzanelson personally recruited her into the Mossad. In 1939 she was sent to Rumania to help Barpal as a translator, but it didn't take long for Barpal to recognize her abilities to work by herself. Her chic and her languages proficiency helped her make easily personal contacts with bankers, ministers and others and to make them help in the "Aliya Beth" endeavors. During 1939-40 she commanded Rumania "station", sent the "Tiger Hill", the last ship to arrive before the WW II started, and the "Hilda" that arrived January 1940 with 726 refugees. In 1940 three Hagana men came to Rumania, Yehuda Arazi, Itshak Haker and David Arnon to buy arms and check sabotage possibilities. Arnon and Haker remained in Rumania with Ruth helping them in their mission. Arazi left for other tasks. Towards the end of 1940 the three escaped to Bulgaria and Istanbul. In Istanbul Ruth continued to take care of Mossad actions especially the "Darien". In 1942 Ruth was sent to Cairo by Golomb (the commandor of the Hagana) and Katzanelson as an envoy of the Mossad and the political bureu of the Jewish Agency. She smuggled Jews overland to Eretz - Israel but also cooperated with the British Intelligence. Ruth uncovered a pro- Nazi organization of Egyptian officers spying for Rommel and put Anwar Saddath (the Egyptian President in years to come) into jail. In Cairo she contacted "Free-French Forces" (French forces commanded by Charles De-Gaulle that continued fighting the Germans during 1940-44). During her stay in Cairo David Ben-Gurion came for a visit, Ruth hired for him a room in her hotel. It was not their first encounter for they had met in Geneva at the Zionist Congress August 1939. In Cairo they had a night-long meeting while Ben-Gurion interrogated her on her past, family and her activities in the Mossad. From her testimony she asked Ben-Gurion what his stand on the Darien affair was, he evaded giving her an answer. Ruth arranged on that same night a meeting between Ben-Gurion and her contact in "Free French Forces" Joseph Blanshar, nicknamed "Zort". He in turn arranged a meeting for Ben-Gurion with Mendes-France, a French Politician working on De-Gaulle's side (Later to become France's Prime-Minister). Ruth's connections with Ben-Gurion went and strengthen, they admired and venerated one the other. Rumors and gossip soon appeared but from her testimony she doesn't mention that their relations crossed any red lines. Near the end of the war, late in 1944, Ruth wanted to return to Israel. Ben-Gurion insisted that she should go to Europe and with the help of De Gaulle she reached liberated Paris. a short time after the liberation, she was the first Mossad activist to come into liberated Europe and contact the death camp survivors. She felt that she had to care for their spiritual needs as others were taking care of the physical needs of the survivors. She organized the First Passover Seder in Marseilles for the survivors of Bergen-Belsen. In 1945 Ruth met Eisenhower in his headquarters. She received the rank of (honoree) colonel in the US army, allowing her free access and travel through out Western Europe. In October 1945 she convinced Colonel Witte, the American officer responsible for the DP (displaced Persons) to "lend" her a troop-ship "Ascanius" to take orphans to Palestine. Word spread that a ship is leaving Marseilles, so 2600 DP's went on board, (not only orphans).On arrival in Haifa the British had no choice but to let the people down. October 1945 Ben-Gurion came to Paris. Ruth was his aide arranging his meetings, food and more. At the same time she was the Mossad envoy and ran the Jewish Agency office. She had long talks with Ben-Gurion and convinced him about the importance of the activities of the Mossad of Aliya Beth. Eventually, at the end of 1946 she returned to Israel to take care of her brother and his family that survived the Holocaust In 1947 Ben-Gurion sent Ruth to North and South America, where she was the main fundraiser of the Mossad. She was also in the "Israeli" delegation at Lake Success during the United Nations historical decision on 29th November 1947 to establish the State of Israel. On returning to Israel after independence Ben-Gurion sent her as a one women investigating mission to the "Maabarot" (Temporary camps for new immigrants). He wanted to make her his advisor on absorption of the new immigrants but the party old —hands didn't like her ideas, but according to her testimony two party commissars threatened her that they'll make trouble and undermine her work. After 10 years of hard work with constant refusal of the party leaders to accept her as an equal she decided not to take Ben-Gurion's offer and disconnected her ties with him. Ruth started to work at ZIM (Israeli shipping company), first as manager of the Jerusalem office and then as the head of public relations at ZIM. Ruth had many famous friends and acquaintances, Ali Khan and his wife Rita Hayward, Danny Kaye, Chagall and others. Ruth was Helen Keller's guide and hostess on her visit to Israel and took her to meet Ben-Gurion. Paula was there and seated her far away from her husband that was probably their last meeting. Ruth added Aliav (Alia B in Hebrew) to her name in her passport, a surname personally suggested by Ben-Gurion. In 1974 her autobiography written together with American authoress Peggy Mann was published and was a best seller, 2 million copies. The book was translated to Hebrew and she got the Yitzhak Sadeh prize for military literature in 1976. She died in 1979. The Mossad's People Yehuda Arazi (Tennenbaum) — code name "Alon". Arazi was born in 1907 in Lvov Poland. He immigrated with his parents to Tel-Aviv in 1923, and studied in Herzliya Hebrew High School. He joined the "Haganah" while still in school, and after that enlisted to the Palestine British Police in 1927, following the orders of Golomb (The Hagana Commandor). In a short time he got the rank of Captain and became the officer in charge of the Political department. Using his rank and position he transmitted information and arms to his comrades in the Haganah. Arazi was appointed as the investigating officer in the Arlozorov murder case in 1933. In his opinion the Jewish suspect, Avraham Stavasky, the revisionist, was innocent. This opinion caused a split between Arazi and the Haganah, so he left the Police. Arazi started to work for "Pardess" a firm exporting Jaffa oranges and went with his family to Poland in 1935. There he made connections with Polish army and bought weapons for the Haggnah it and smuggled it into Palestine. At the break out of WW II (September 1939) he and his family escaped back to Palestine. Arazi joined the intelligence unit of the Haganah. From 1940 onwards he was involved in the "partnership" between the Haganah and the British army making plans for sabotage behind Nazi lines. Yet he continued to smuggle weapons from the British army. In 1943 the British started to suspect him and he had to escape and hide for 2 years. In 1945 he was smuggled into Italy, and commanded the Mossad "station" over there. He sent 20 ships with 26,000 "illegal" immigrants to Palestine. One of the most known affairs was "La Spacia", involving two ships "Eliyahu Golomb" and "Dov Hoz" with 1,014 holocaust survivors on board. The British didn't allow them to leave the port and sail to Palestine, so Arazi organized a hunger strike. The sympathy of the people of La Spazia and world press caused the British government to let the ships sail, and they arrived in Haifa on August 1946. Arazi and the La Spacia affair gave the inspiration to Leon Uris for the character of Ari Ben Cnan in his book "Exodus" After 1948 he became a private businessman, mainly in tourist business and built the Ramat-Aviv Hotel. Arazi was married and a father to a daughter and a son. He died form cancer at the age of 51, in 1959. Yael Rozman wrote a book about Arazi "King of Ruses, story of Yehuda Arazi" 1995. Joshef Barpal — Code name "Kadmon" (antique). Born in Odessa Russia 1896. After the revolution, escaped with his young bride Sima to Rumania, and was among the organizers of the Halutz (Pioneer) movement. In 1923 his wife and son Uri made "Aliya", and he remained behind for 2 more years participating in "Halutz" activity in Rumania, smuggling Jews out of Russia. Barfal joined his wife in Israel and together they moved to Kibbutz Ramat David, there his daughter was born. He became the secretary of the Kibbutz and among the founders of "Mekorot" (National Water Company). In 1934 together with Brganiski organized the first ship "Vallus", that took 350 pioneers disguised as students on a summer sailing, they were put ashore at Kfar Vitkin —Israel. The second sailing of "Vallus" was a failure and the pioneers had to return to Europe. Barpal was considered the senior Mossad activist till Shaul Avigor became the commander of the Mossad in 1939. During the years 1940-48 he served as second in command and treasurer of the Mossad. His son Uri, a soldier in the Jewish brigade joined Arazi's "band' in Italy and was Arazi's and Ada Sereni's driver. After 1948 he joined Zim (Israeli National ship Lines) and was general manager (after Shind death) and latter director of ZIM. Sima Barpal's first wife died in 1945 and after many years he remarried his sister-in - law Gila. Barpal died in 1972. Yehuda (Julek) Brganiski — Code name "Shimon". Born in 1897 in Russia. He was forced to enlist to the Red Army during the revolution, deserted, and became a smuggler for the "Dror" (Freedom) movement, smuggling out Jews from Russia to Poland. Then he moved to Poland and in the 20's he was one of the founders of the "Halutz" Pioneer movement. He was also a Member of the Zionist Congress Executive. In 1930 Brganiski immigrated to Palestine and joined kibbutz Yagur. Politically he belonged to "Achdut Ha-avoda" led by Tabenkin's adherents that were opponents of Ben-Gurion. In 1934 he was sent as an envoy of the "Halutz" to Poland, together with his spouse Batia, and became a key-man of the illegal immigration. He organized the first illegal ship "Vallus" in 1934. In 1939 he helped Arazi smuggling arms from Poland to Israel and during the years 1941-44 he helped recruiting and training the Israeli "Parachutists" that were sent behind Nazi lines trying to help Jews. During 1945-48 he continued working in the Mossad Headquaters in Paris Brganiski continued working with "Olim' (immigrants) during the 50's. He headed the Absorption department in the Jewish Agency, and in 1955 made a trip to Morocco. He went against the "selection" policy, saying that the Jewish Agency should get all the Jewish community out of Morocco. He wrote 3 memoir books: "A People Striving for a Shore", "Like a mole in the mountains" and "A Diaspora in Distress", Brganiski was married to Mania. They came together to Israel and to Kibbutz Yagur. She was the mother of his son Izthak Bitan. His spouse in Kibbutz Givat Hasholsha was Batia, and the two had a son, Nimrod Bari, that was born in Paris, September 1939 He died in 1979. Zeav Shind — Code name "Dani". Shind was born in 1908 in Poland, came to Israel in 1929 and was a member of Kibbutz Aylet Hashahar. In 1937 he was the first recruit to join Brganiski and Levi Shwartz in organizing the "Ha'apala" (Illegal Immigration to Palestine). This crew was the first core of the Mossad for Aliya Beth. During 1942-44 Shind was in Istanbul in the Rescue Committee of the Jewish Agency. This committee was in contact with the Jewish congregations in the Nazi occupied territories and developed on saving operations. During 45-48 he was in USA and bought ships, among them the "Exodus" and "Haim Arlozerov". After Israel Independence in 1948, he became the general manager of "ZIM" (Israel Shipping Company). In 1952 he was the general manager of the Defense Ministry and after a short time he returned to mange ZIM again. He was married to Hava and had one daughter, Hagit. He died 1954 at the age 46. Shmarya Zamerth — Code name "Zlopah" (Eel) and "Miyohas" (the privileged). He was born in USA in 1910. His father a Zionist activist that escaped from Russia to USA after the 1905 revolution dreamt all is life to immigrate to Israel. In 1920 he and his 10 year-old son, Shmarya, visited Palestine (Israel). In 1926, after his father's death, 16 year-old Shmarya made "Aliya" on his own, studied at Herzliya Hebrew High School in Tel Aviv, and was active in the "Hebraic speak Hebrew" movement. He joined the Mahanot Ha-olim youth Movement and went to a kibbutz. After a short visit to USA he returned with the awareness that Israel and the Kibbutz pioneer way of life were the best choice for him. In 1939 he was enlisted into the Mossad. His American passport allowed him free movement in Europe, better than the other Mossad activists. In 1940 he bought the Darien ship for the Mossad. During the years1941-45 he was undercover. The Mossad sent him to Italy in 1945 as a cultural sergeant in the Jewish Brigade and from there he sent the first Haapala ships, "Dalin" with 37 illegal immigrants, "Peter A" with 170 and "Peter B" with 174. The British uncovered his disguise and he had to escape to the headquarters of the Mossad in Milan. But over there he didn't get along with Arazi. He went to France and became the commander of Marseilles "station" in the years 1945-48 and was responsible for the loading of the "Exodus" in 1947. Shmarya was married to Hadasa and had 4 children. He died in 1965, in a work accident at the olive factory of his Kibutz, Beit-Hashita. The case of the Darien II Th e history of Aliyah Bet contains extraordinary incidents, one of which that of the Darien II, the last transport of Aliyah Bet during the war to reach Haifa, was one. Its journey was even more unusual in that they involved a ship which during the course of its mission was formally the property of the British secret service.12 Darien II was almost 50 years old. It had changed its name and owner several times. In the spring of 1940 it was bought by Mossad le’Aliyah Bet in Greece, with plans for Darien to transport the refugees of the so called Kladovo group. At the same time Hagana had decided to sell the vessel to the British SOE (Special Operations Executive). Th e British had concrete plans for the Darien. Th ey calculated that as an Aliyah Bet craft it would not arouse untoward suspicion on the part of the Germans. Th e ship, loaded up with scrap and explosives, was to be detonated on the Danube, blocking the transportation of Romanian oil to Germany. Th e sale transaction was conducted in Cairo with the participation of representatives of Hagana and Mossad (David Hacohen, Yehuda Arazi, Moshe Agami, Ze’ev Shind).13 When the board of Hagana recommended that Darien be turned over to the British (the boat was at the time moored at Sulina, awaiting the refugees from Šabac), some Mossad activists refused, pointing to the Aliyah Bet priority of rescuing the refugees. Th e main advocates of this position were Yehuda Braginski and Ruth Klueger.14 Darien was not delivered to the British however, even though they had paid for the vessel. Th e activists of Aliyah Bet had other plans for the Darien. Th ey intended to use it for the transportation to Palestine of several hundred Jews, mainly Romanians and Bulgarians. Th e ship left Constanta on the 19th of February 1941. Other groups joined on route, at Varna and Istanbul. Th e Darien was carrying around 790 refugees.15 Great Britain, as usual, asked the Turkish authorities to stop the transport. Turkey, however, refused. Aft er an eight-day wait in Istanbul the ship continued its journey. On the 19th of March 1941, aft er reaching Haifa, the vessel was taken by the British. Th e passengers were to be sent to Mauritius, but the Mandate authorities did not have an appropriate means of transportation at their disposal.16 Th e refugees were taken to Atlit, where they were to be interned for eighteen months. Th ey luckily avoided deportation and in the summer of 1942 were given the chance to legally settle in Palestine.17 An adherent of this very solution was Churchill himself, who in February 1942 appealed to Lord Walter Moyne of the Colonial Offi ce to allow the refugees to settle in the Mandate.18 Whether Churchill’s voice in the matter was decisive or not, the fact remains that the British Prime Minister took a  stand that was benefi cial to Jewish immigrants, and not for the fi rst time (he had done so earlier in, among other examples, the matter of the Patria catastrophe). Many saw him as sympathetic to the Zionist movement. Churchill understood the need to change Great Britain’s Palestinian policy to increasingly take Jewish aspirations into account. It was chiefl y thanks to him that a Jewish military arm of the Jewish Brigade was formed in 1944. Hence it is a curious paradox that the government he headed was to take such an active role in counteracting Aliyah Bet. London’s approach is usually explained by the course of political circumstances. In this context the fi gure of Churchill himself is ambiguous. Some, like Martin Gilbert, have lauded his services to the Jews, others (Michael J. Cohen) are more restrained in their assessment.19 Circumstances were increasingly disadvantageous to the Jews. Aft er Romania’s accession to the Axis Powers (Tripartite Pact) in the autumn of 1940, the Jewish inhabitants of Romania could no longer count on legally receiving an immigration certifi cate to Palestine. It should be remembered that the Diaspora here was second in magnitude only to that of Poland in Central-Eastern Europe. Circumstances in Europe and the Middle East were not favourable. On the one hand the infamous Wannsee Conference was approaching (January 1942). On the other – following the pro-German coup of Rashid Ali al-Gaylani in Iraq (April 1941), London had to tread carefully in the Middle East. Th is meant with regard to Palestine a further intensifi cation of the policy against the illegal infl ux of Jewish immigrants The term Aliyah Bet refers to illegal Jewish immigration to Palestine in the period of the British Mandate for Palestine; it constituted one of the most effective methods marked, on the one hand, by clandestine activities and spectacular operations, and on the other, by dramatic events (catastrophes of sea liners carrying immigrants, deportations of refugees). The book discusses events without which one cannot understand the contemporary Israel. Palestine (Arabic: فلسطين, romanized: Filasṭīn, pronounced [fɪ.lɪs.tˤiː.n]), officially the State of Palestine[a] (دولة فلسطين, Dawlat Filasṭīn), is a state located in the Southern Levant region of Western Asia. Officially governed by the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), it claims the West Bank (including East Jerusalem) and the Gaza Strip as its territory, though the entirety of that territory has been under Israeli occupation since the 1967 Six-Day War.[5][18] As a result of the Oslo Accords of 1993–1995, the West Bank is currently divided into 165 Palestinian enclaves that are under partial Palestinian National Authority (PNA) rule; the remainder, including 200 Israeli settlements, is under full Israeli control. The Gaza Strip has been ruled by the militant Islamic group Hamas and has been subject to a long-term blockade by Egypt and Israel since 2007.[c] After World War II, in 1947, the United Nations (UN) adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine, which recommended the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem.[27] This Partition Plan was accepted by the Jews but rejected by the Arabs. Immediately after the United Nations General Assembly adopted the plan as Resolution 181, a civil war broke out[28] and the plan was not implemented.[29] The day after the establishment of the State of Israel on 14 May 1948,[30][31][32] neighboring Arab countries invaded the former British Mandate and engaged Israeli forces in the First Arab–Israeli War.[33][34] Later, the All-Palestine Government was established by the Arab League on 22 September 1948 to govern the All-Palestine Protectorate in the Egyptian-occupied Gaza Strip. It was soon recognized by all Arab League members except Transjordan, which had occupied and later annexed the West Bank, including East Jerusalem. Palestine is currently recognized by 138 of the 193 United Nations (UN) member states. Though jurisdiction of the All-Palestine Government was declared to cover the whole of the former Mandatory Palestine, its effective jurisdiction was limited to the Gaza Strip.[35] Israel later captured the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria during the Six-Day War in June 1967. On 15 November 1988 in Algiers, then-Chairman of the PLO Yasser Arafat proclaimed the establishment of the State of Palestine. A year after the signing of the Oslo Accords in 1993, the PNA was formed to govern (in varying degrees) areas A and B in the West Bank, comprising 165 enclaves, and the Gaza Strip. After Hamas became the PNA parliament's leading party in the most recent elections (2006), a conflict broke out between it and the Fatah party, leading to Gaza being taken over by Hamas in 2007 (two years after the Israeli disengagement). The State of Palestine's mid-year population in 2021 is 5,227,193. Although Palestine claims Jerusalem as its capital, the city is under the control of Israel; both Palestinian and Israeli claims to the city are mostly unrecognized by the international community. Palestine is a member of the Arab League, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the G77, the International Olympic Committee, as well as UNESCO, UNCTAD and the International Criminal Court.[36] Following a failed attempt in 2011[e] to secure full United Nations member state status, the United Nations General Assembly voted in 2012 to recognize Palestine as a non-member observer state.[38][39][40] Etymology Further information: Palestine (region) § Etymology, and Timeline of the name "Palestine" Although the concept of the Palestine region and its geographical extent has varied throughout history, it is now considered to be composed by the modern State of Israel, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.[41] General use of the term "Palestine" or related terms to the area at the southeast corner of the Mediterranean Sea beside Syria has historically been taking place since the times of Ancient Greece, with Herodotus being the first historian writing in the 5th century BC in The Histories of a "district of Syria, called Palaistine" in which Phoenicians interacted with other maritime peoples.[42][43] The term "Palestine" (in Latin, Palæstina) is thought to have been a term coined by the Ancient Greeks for the area of land occupied by the Philistines, although there are other explanations.[44] Terminology This article uses the terms "Palestine", "State of Palestine", "occupied Palestinian territory" (oPt or OPT) interchangeably depending on context. Specifically, the term "occupied Palestinian territory" refers as a whole to the geographical area of the Palestinian territory occupied by Israel since 1967. In all cases, any references to land or territory refer to land claimed by the State of Palestine.[45] History Main article: History of the State of Palestine See also: History of Palestine In 1947, the UN adopted a partition plan for a two-state solution in the remaining territory of the mandate. The plan was accepted by the Jewish leadership but rejected by the Arab leaders, and Britain refused to implement the plan. On the eve of final British withdrawal, the Jewish Agency for Israel, headed by David Ben-Gurion, declared the establishment of the State of Israel according to the proposed UN plan. The Arab Higher Committee did not declare a state of its own and instead, together with Transjordan, Egypt, and the other members of the Arab League of the time, commenced military action resulting in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. During the war, Israel gained additional territories that were designated to be part of the Arab state under the UN plan. Egypt occupied the Gaza Strip and Transjordan occupied and then annexed the West Bank. Egypt initially supported the creation of an All-Palestine Government but disbanded it in 1959. Transjordan never recognized it and instead decided to incorporate the West Bank with its own territory to form Jordan. The annexation was ratified in 1950 but was rejected by the international community. The Six-Day War in 1967, when Israel fought against Egypt, Jordan, and Syria, ended with Israel occupying the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, besides other territories.[46][better source needed] In 1964, when the West Bank was controlled by Jordan, the Palestine Liberation Organization was established there with the goal to confront Israel. The Palestinian National Charter of the PLO defines the boundaries of Palestine as the whole remaining territory of the mandate, including Israel. Following the Six-Day War, the PLO moved to Jordan, but later relocated to Lebanon in 1971.[47][better source needed] The October 1974 Arab League summit designated the PLO as the "sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people" and reaffirmed "their right to establish an independent state of urgency."[48] In November 1974, the PLO was recognized as competent on all matters concerning the question of Palestine by the UN General Assembly granting them observer status as a "non-state entity" at the UN.[49][50] After the 1988 Declaration of Independence, the UN General Assembly officially acknowledged the proclamation and decided to use the designation "Palestine" instead of "Palestine Liberation Organization" in the UN.[17][51] In spite of this decision, the PLO did not participate at the UN in its capacity of the State of Palestine's government.[52] In 1979, through the Camp David Accords, Egypt signaled an end to any claim of its own over the Gaza Strip. In July 1988, Jordan ceded its claims to the West Bank—with the exception of guardianship over Haram al-Sharif—to the PLO. In November 1988, the PLO legislature, while in exile, declared the establishment of the "State of Palestine". In the month following, it was quickly recognised by many states, including Egypt and Jordan. In the Palestinian Declaration of Independence, the State of Palestine is described as being established on the "Palestinian territory", without explicitly specifying further. Because of this, some of the countries that recognised the State of Palestine in their statements of recognition refer to the "1967 borders", thus recognizing as its territory only the occupied Palestinian territory, and not Israel. The UN membership application submitted by the State of Palestine also specified that it is based on the "1967 borders".[2] During the negotiations of the Oslo Accords, the PLO recognised Israel's right to exist, and Israel recognised the PLO as representative of the Palestinian people. The 1988 Palestinian Declaration of Independence included a PNC call for multilateral negotiations on the basis of UN Security Council Resolution 242 later known as "the Historic Compromise",[53] implying acceptance of a two-state solution and no longer questioning the legitimacy of the State of Israel.[54] After Israel captured and occupied of the West Bank from Jordan and Gaza Strip from Egypt, it began to establish Israeli settlements there. Administration of the Arab population of these territories was performed by the Israeli Civil Administration of the Coordinator of Government Activities in the Territories and by local municipal councils present since before the Israeli takeover. In 1980, Israel decided to freeze elections for these councils and to establish instead Village Leagues, whose officials were under Israeli influence. Later this model became ineffective for both Israel and the Palestinians, and the Village Leagues began to break up, with the last being the Hebron League, dissolved in February 1988.[55] In 1993, in the Oslo Accords, Israel acknowledged the PLO negotiating team as "representing the Palestinian people", in return for the PLO recognizing Israel's right to exist in peace, acceptance of UN Security Council resolutions 242 and 338, and its rejection of "violence and terrorism".[56] As a result, in 1994 the PLO established the Palestinian National Authority (PNA or PA) territorial administration, that exercises some governmental functions[c] in parts of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.[57][58] In 2007, the Hamas takeover of Gaza Strip politically and territorially divided the Palestinians, with Abbas's Fatah left largely ruling the West Bank and recognized internationally as the official Palestinian Authority,[59] while Hamas secured its control over the Gaza Strip. In April 2011, the Palestinian parties signed an agreement of reconciliation, but its implementation had stalled[59] until a unity government was formed on 2 June 2014.[60] Demonstration against road block, Kafr Qaddum, March 2012 As envisioned in the Oslo Accords, Israel allowed the PLO to establish interim administrative institutions in the Palestinian territories, which came in the form of the PNA. It was given civilian control in Area B and civilian and security control in Area A, and remained without involvement in Area C. In 2005, following the implementation of Israel's unilateral disengagement plan, the PNA gained full control of the Gaza Strip with the exception of its borders, airspace, and territorial waters.[c] Following the inter-Palestinian conflict in 2006, Hamas took over control of the Gaza Strip (it already had majority in the PLC), and Fatah took control of the West Bank. From 2007, the Gaza Strip was governed by Hamas, and the West Bank by Fatah.[61] International recognition Main article: International recognition of the State of Palestine The State of Palestine has been recognized by 139 of the 193 UN members and since 2012 has had a status of a non-member observer state in the United Nations.[38][39][40] On 29 November 2012, in a 138–9 vote (with 41 abstentions and 5 absences),[62] the United Nations General Assembly passed resolution 67/19, upgrading Palestine from an "observer entity" to a "non-member observer state" within the United Nations System, which was described as recognition of the PLO's sovereignty.[39][40][63][64][65] Palestine's new status is equivalent to that of the Holy See.[66] The UN has permitted Palestine to title its representative office to the UN as "The Permanent Observer Mission of the State of Palestine to the United Nations",[67] and Palestine has instructed its diplomats to officially represent "The State of Palestine"—no longer the Palestinian National Authority.[65] On 17 December 2012, UN Chief of Protocol Yeocheol Yoon declared that "the designation of 'State of Palestine' shall be used by the Secretariat in all official United Nations documents",[68] thus recognising the title 'State of Palestine' as the state's official name for all UN purposes; on 21 December 2012, a UN memorandum discussed appropriate terminology to be used following GA 67/19. It was noted therein that there was no legal impediment to using the designation Palestine to refer to the geographical area of the Palestinian territory. At the same time, it was explained that there was also no bar to the continued use of the term "Occupied Palestinian Territory including East Jerusalem" or such other terminology as might customarily be used by the Assembly.[69] As of 1 June 2023, 139 (72%) of the 193 member states of the United Nations have recognised the State of Palestine.[64][70] Many of the countries that do not recognise the State of Palestine nevertheless recognise the PLO as the "representative of the Palestinian people". The PLO's Executive Committee is empowered by the Palestinian National Council to perform the functions of government of the State of Palestine.[71] Geography Main article: Geography of the State of Palestine The areas claimed by the State of Palestine lie in the Southern Levant. The Gaza Strip borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Egypt to the south, and Israel to the north and east. The West Bank is bordered by Jordan to the east, and Israel to the north, south, and west. Thus, the two enclaves constituting the area claimed by State of Palestine have no geographical border with one another, being separated by Israel. These areas would constitute the world's 163rd largest country by land area.[6][72][73][better source needed] Palestine has a number of environmental issues; issues facing the Gaza Strip include desertification; salination of fresh water; sewage treatment; water-borne diseases; soil degradation; and depletion and contamination of underground water resources. In the West Bank, many of the same issues apply; although fresh water is much more plentiful, access is restricted by the ongoing dispute.[74] Three terrestrial ecoregions are found in the area: Eastern Mediterranean conifer–sclerophyllous–broadleaf forests, Arabian Desert, and Mesopotamian shrub desert.[75] Climate Temperatures in Palestine vary widely. The climate in the West Bank is mostly Mediterranean, slightly cooler at elevated areas compared with the shoreline, west to the area. In the east, the West Bank includes much of the Judean Desert including the western shoreline of the Dead Sea, characterised by dry and hot climate. Gaza has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen: BSh) with mild winters and dry hot summers.[citation needed] Spring arrives around March–April and the hottest months are July and August, with the average high being 33 °C (91 °F). The coldest month is January with temperatures usually at 7 °C (45 °F). Rain is scarce and generally falls between November and March, with annual precipitation rates approximately at 4.57 inches (116 mm).[76] Government and politics Main articles: Palestinian government, Elections in Palestine, and Next Palestinian general election See also: Politics of the Palestinian National Authority and Politics of the Palestine Liberation Organization The destroyed Palestinian Legislative Council building in Gaza City, Gaza–Israel conflict, September 2009 The State of Palestine consists of the following institutions that are associated with the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO): President of the State of Palestine[77][d] – appointed by the Palestinian Central Council[78] Palestinian National Council – the legislature that established the State of Palestine[3] Executive Committee of the Palestine Liberation Organization – performs the functions of a government in exile,[64][71][79][80] maintaining an extensive foreign-relations network These should be distinguished from the President of the Palestinian National Authority, Palestinian Legislative Council (PLC) and PNA Cabinet, all of which are instead associated with the Palestinian National Authority. The State of Palestine's founding document is the Palestinian Declaration of Independence,[3] and it should be distinguished from the unrelated PLO Palestinian National Covenant and PNA Palestine Basic Law. Map of the Palestinian Authority showing the Palestinian enclaves currently under Palestinian administration in red (Areas A and B; not including Gaza Strip, which is under Hamas rule) Map of the Palestinian Governorates (official) Law and security Main articles: Palestinian Security Services and Crime in the State of Palestine The State of Palestine has a number of security forces, including a Civil Police Force, National Security Forces and Intelligence Services, with the function of maintaining security and protecting Palestinian citizens and the Palestinian State. Administrative divisions See also: Palestinian enclaves and ISO 3166-2:PS The State of Palestine is divided into sixteen administrative divisions. Name Area (km2)[81] Population Density (per km2) Muhafazah (district capital) Jenin 583 311,231 533.8 Jenin Tubas 402 64,719 161.0 Tubas Tulkarm 246 182,053 740.0 Tulkarm Nablus 605 380,961 629.7 Nablus Qalqiliya 166 110,800 667.5 Qalqilya Salfit 204 70,727 346.7 Salfit Ramallah & Al-Bireh 855 348,110 407.1 Ramallah Jericho & Al Aghwar 593 52,154 87.9 Jericho Jerusalem 345 419,108a 1214.8[i] Jerusalem (see Status of Jerusalem) Bethlehem 659 216,114 927.9 Bethlehem Hebron 997 706,508 708.6 Hebron North Gaza 61 362,772 5947.1 Jabalya[citation needed] Gaza 74 625,824 8457.1 Gaza City Deir Al-Balah 58 264,455 4559.6 Deir al-Balah Khan Yunis 108 341,393 3161.0 Khan Yunis Rafah 64 225,538 3524.0 Rafah  Data from Jerusalem includes occupied East Jerusalem with its Israeli population Map of Israeli settlements in the West Bank The governorates in the West Bank are grouped into three areas per the Oslo II Accord. Area A forms 18% of the West Bank by area, and is administered by the Palestinian government.[82][83] Area B forms 22% of the West Bank, and is under Palestinian civil control, and joint Israeli-Palestinian security control.[82][83] Area C, except East Jerusalem, forms 60% of the West Bank, and is administered by the Israeli Civil Administration, except that the Palestinian government provides the education and medical services to the 150,000 Palestinians in the area.[82] More than 99% of Area C is off limits to Palestinians.[84] There are about 330,000 Israelis living in settlements in Area C.[85] Although Area C is under martial law, Israelis living there are entitled to full civic rights.[86] East Jerusalem (comprising the small pre-1967 Jordanian eastern-sector Jerusalem municipality together with a significant area of the pre-1967 West Bank demarcated by Israel in 1967) is administered as part of the Jerusalem District of Israel but is claimed by Palestine as part of the Jerusalem Governorate. It was effectively annexed by Israel in 1967, by application of Israeli law, jurisdiction and administration under a 1948 law amended for the purpose, this purported annexation being constitutionally reaffirmed (by implication) in Basic Law: Jerusalem 1980,[82] but this annexation is not recognised by any other country.[87] In 2010 of the 456,000 people in East Jerusalem, roughly 60% were Palestinians and 40% were Israelis.[82][88] However, since the late 2000s, Israel's West Bank Security Barrier has effectively re-annexed tens of thousands of Palestinians bearing Israeli ID cards to the West Bank, leaving East Jerusalem within the barrier with a small Israeli majority (60%).[citation needed] Foreign relations See also: Foreign relations of Palestine, List of diplomatic missions of Palestine, and List of diplomatic missions to Palestine Representation of the State of Palestine is performed by the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). In states that recognise the State of Palestine it maintains embassies. The Palestine Liberation Organization is represented in various international organizations as member, associate or observer. Because of inconclusiveness in sources in some cases it is impossible to distinguish whether the participation is executed by the PLO as representative of the State of Palestine, by the PLO as a non-state entity or by the PNA.[citation needed] International recognition of the State of Palestine On 15 December 1988, the State of Palestine's declaration of independence of November 1988 was acknowledged in the General Assembly with Resolution 43/177.[89] On 29 November 2012,[62] UN General Assembly resolution 67/19 passed, upgrading Palestine to "non-member observer state" status in the United Nations.[64][65] The change in status was described as "de facto recognition of the sovereign state of Palestine".[38] In 2013 the Swedish Parliament upgraded the status of the Palestinian representative office in the country to full embassy status.[90] On 3 October 2014, new Swedish Prime Minister Stefan Löfven used his inaugural address in parliament to announce that Sweden would recognise the state of Palestine. The official decision to do so was made on 30 October, making Sweden the first EU member state outside of the former communist bloc to recognise the state of Palestine. Most of the EU's 27 member states have refrained from recognising Palestinian statehood and those that do—such as Hungary, Poland, and Slovakia—did so before accession.[91][92][93] In February 2015, Mahmoud Abbas visited Sweden to open the new embassy, and Löfven said "According to our view, Palestine is from now on a state."[94] On 13 October 2014, the UK House of Commons voted by 274 to 12 in favour of recognising Palestine as a state.[95] The House of Commons backed the move "as a contribution to securing a negotiated two-state solution"—although less than half of MPs took part in the vote. However, the UK government is not bound to do anything as a result of the vote: its current policy is that it "reserves the right to recognise a Palestinian state bilaterally at the moment of our choosing and when it can best help bring about peace".[96] On 2 December 2014, the French parliament voted by 331 to 151 in favour of urging their government to recognise Palestine as a state. The text, proposed by the ruling Socialists and backed by left-wing parties and some conservatives, asked the government to "use the recognition of a Palestinian state with the aim of resolving the conflict definitively".[97] On 31 December 2014, the United Nations Security Council voted down a resolution demanding the end of Israeli occupation and statehood by 2017. Eight members voted for the Resolution (Russia, China, France, Argentina, Chad, Chile, Jordan, Luxembourg), however following strenuous US and Israeli efforts to defeat the resolution,[98] it did not get the minimum of nine votes needed to pass the resolution. Australia and the United States voted against the resolution, with five other nations abstaining.[99][100][101] Children waving a Palestinian flag, West Bank On 16 January 2015, the International Criminal Court announced that, since Palestine was granted observer State status in the UN by the UNGA, it must be considered a "State" for the purposes of accession to the Rome Statute.[102] On 13 May 2015, the Vatican announced it was shifting recognition from the PLO to the State of Palestine, confirming recognition of Palestine as a state after the UN vote of 2012.[103] Monsignor Antoine Camilleri, Vatican foreign minister, said the change was in line with the evolving position of the Holy See, which has referred unofficially to the State of Palestine since Pope Francis's visit to the Holy Land in May 2014.[104] On 23 December 2015, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution demanding Palestinian sovereignty over the natural resources in the Palestinian territories under Israeli occupation. It called on Israel to desist from the exploitation, damage, cause of loss or depletion and endangerment of Palestinian natural resources, the right of Palestinians to seek restitution for extensive destruction. The motion was passed by 164 votes to 5, with Canada, Federated States of Micronesia, Israel, Marshall Islands, and the United States opposing.[105] As of 1 June 2023, 139 (72%) of the 193 member states of the United Nations have recognised the State of Palestine. Many of the countries that do not recognise the State of Palestine nevertheless recognise the PLO as the "representative of the Palestinian people". The PLO's executive committee is empowered by the PNC to perform the functions of government of the State of Palestine.[71] Legal status Main article: Legal status of the State of Palestine There are a wide variety of views regarding the status of the State of Palestine, both among the states of the international community and among legal scholars.[106] The existence of a state of Palestine, although controversial,[107] is a reality in the opinions of the states that have established bilateral diplomatic relations.[108] Raising the flag at the UN See also: Palestine and the United Nations In August 2015, Palestine's representatives at the UN presented a draft resolution that would allow the non-member observer states Palestine and the Holy See to raise their flags at the United Nations headquarters. Initially, the Palestinians presented their initiative as a joint effort with the Holy See, which the Holy See denied.[109] In a letter to the Secretary General and the President of the General Assembly, Israel's Ambassador at the UN Ron Prosor called the step "another cynical misuse of the UN ... in order to score political points".[110] After the vote, which was passed by 119 votes to 8 with 45 countries abstaining,[111][112][113] the US Ambassador Samantha Power said that "raising the Palestinian flag will not bring Israelis and Palestinians any closer together".[114] US Department of State spokesman Mark Toner called it a "counterproductive" attempt to pursue statehood claims outside of a negotiated settlement.[115] At the ceremony itself, U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon said the occasion was a "day of pride for the Palestinian people around the world, a day of hope",[116] and declared "Now is the time to restore confidence by both Israelis and Palestinians for a peaceful settlement and, at last, the realization of two states for two peoples."[111] Demographics Main articles: Demographics of the State of Palestine, Palestinians, and List of regions of Palestine by Human Development Index Population According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS), as of 26 May 2021, the State of Palestine 2021 mid year population is 5,227,193.[9] Ala Owad, PCBS President, estimated a population of 5.3 million as of end year 2021.[117] Within an area of 6,020 square kilometres (2,320 sq mi), there is a population density of about 827 people per square kilometre.[73] To put this in a wider context, the average population density of the world was 25 people per square kilometre as of 2017.[118] Healthcare Main article: Healthcare in the State of Palestine According to the Palestinian Ministry of Health (MOH), as of 2017, there were 743 primary health care centers in Palestine (583 in the West Bank and 160 in Gaza), and 81 hospitals (51 in the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and 30 in Gaza).[119] Operating under the auspices of the World Health Organization (WHO),[120] the Health Cluster for the occupied Palestinian territory (oPt) was established in 2009 and represents a partnership of over 70 local and international nongovernmental organisations and UN agencies providing a framework for health actors involved in the humanitarian response for the oPt. The Cluster is co-chaired by the MOH to ensure alignment with national policies and plans.[121] The report of WHO Director-General of 1 May 2019 describes health sector conditions in the oPt identifying strategic priorities and current obstacles to their achievement[122] pursuant to the country cooperation strategy for WHO and the Occupied Palestinian Territory 2017–2020.[123] Education Main article: Education in the State of Palestine The literacy rate of Palestine was 96.3% according to a 2014 report by the United Nations Development Programme, which is high by international standards. There is a gender difference in the population aged above 15 with 5.9% of women considered illiterate compared to 1.6% of men.[124] Illiteracy among women has fallen from 20.3% in 1997 to less than 6% in 2014.[124] Religion Further information: Islam in Palestine and Palestinian Christians See also: Freedom of religion in the State of Palestine Religion of Palestinians (est. 2014)   Islam (93%)   Christianity (6%)   Druze and Samaritans (1%) Palestinian girls in Nablus Illustration of Palestinian Christian home in Jerusalem, ca 1850. By W. H. Bartlett 93% of Palestinians are Muslim,[125] the vast majority of whom are followers of the Sunni branch of Islam,[126] with a small minority of Ahmadiyya,[127] and 15% being nondenominational Muslims.[128] Palestinian Christians represent a significant minority of 6%, followed by much smaller religious communities, including Druze[citation needed] and Samaritans.[129] Economy Main article: Economy of the State of Palestine See also: Taxation in the State of Palestine Tourism Main article: Tourism in the State of Palestine Tourism in the territory claimed by the State of Palestine refers to tourism in East Jerusalem, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. In 2010, 4.6 million people visited the Palestinian territories, compared to 2.6 million in 2009. Of that number, 2.2 million were foreign tourists while 2.7 million were domestic.[130] Most tourists come for only a few hours or as part of a day trip itinerary. In the last quarter of 2012 over 150,000 guests stayed in West Bank hotels; 40% were European and 9% were from the United States and Canada.[131] Lonely Planet travel guide writes that "the West Bank is not the easiest place in which to travel but the effort is richly rewarded."[132] In 2013 Palestinian Authority Tourism minister Rula Ma'ay'a stated that her government aims to encourage international visits to Palestine, but the occupation is the main factor preventing the tourism sector from becoming a major income source to Palestinians.[133] There are no visa conditions imposed on foreign nationals other than those imposed by the visa policy of Israel. Access to Jerusalem, the West Bank, and Gaza is completely controlled by the Government of Israel. Entry to the occupied Palestinian territories requires only a valid international passport.[134] Communications Main article: Communications in the State of Palestine The Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) and the Ministry of Telecom and Information Technology said there were 4.2 million cellular mobile subscribers in Palestine compared to 2.6 million at the end of 2010 while the number of ADSL subscribers in Palestine increased to about 363 thousand by the end of 2019 from 119 thousand over the same period. 97% of Palestinian households have at least one cellular mobile line while at least one smartphone is owned by 86% of households (91% in the West Bank and 78% in Gaza Strip). About 80% of the Palestinian households have access to the internet in their homes and about a third have a computer.[135] On 12 June 2020, the World Bank approved a US$15 million grant for the Technology for Youth and Jobs (TechStart) Project aiming to help the Palestinian IT sector upgrade the capabilities of firms and create more high-quality jobs. Kanthan Shankar, World Bank Country Director for West Bank and Gaza said "The IT sector has the potential to make a strong contribution to economic growth. It can offer opportunities to Palestinian youth, who constitute 30% of the population and suffer from acute unemployment."[136] Financial services The Palestine Monetary Authority has issued guidelines for the operation and provision of electronic payment services including e-wallet and prepaid cards.[137] Transportation Main article: Transport in the State of Palestine Water supply and sanitation Main article: Water supply and sanitation in the State of Palestine See also: Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Monitoring Program Water supply and sanitation in the Palestinian territories are characterized by severe water shortage and are highly influenced by the Israeli occupation. The water resources of Palestine are fully controlled by Israel and the division of groundwater is subject to provisions in the Oslo II Accord.[citation needed] Generally, the water quality is considerably worse in the Gaza strip when compared to the West Bank. About a third to half of the delivered water in the Palestinian territories is lost in the distribution network. The lasting blockade of the Gaza Strip and the Gaza War have caused severe damage to the infrastructure in the Gaza Strip.[138][139] Concerning wastewater, the existing treatment plants do not have the capacity to treat all of the produced wastewater, causing severe water pollution.[140] The development of the sector highly depends on external financing.[141] Culture Main articles: Culture of Palestine and List of World Heritage Sites in the State of Palestine Media There are a number of newspapers, news agencies, and satellite television stations in the State of Palestine. Its news agencies include Ma'an News Agency, Wafa, Palestine News Network. Al-Aqsa TV, Al-Quds TV, Sanabel TV are its main satellite broadcasters. Sports Main article: Sports in Palestine Association football (soccer) is the most popular sport among the Palestinian people.[citation needed] The Palestine national football team represents the state in international football. Rugby is also a popular sport.[citation needed] Art, music, and clothing Main articles: Palestinian art, Music of Palestine, and Palestinian traditional costumes
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