Birds Temporal range: Late Cretaceous – present, 72–0 Ma[1][2] PreꞒꞒOSDCPTJKPgN Possible Early Cretaceous or early Late Cretaceous origin based on molecular clock[3][4][5] Scientific classificationEdit this classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Clade: Sauropsida Clade: Avemetatarsalia Clade: Ornithurae Class: Aves Linnaeus, 1758[6] Extant clades Palaeognathae (ratites and tinamou) Struthionimorphae (ostrich) Notopalaeognathae Neognathae Pangalloanserae (fowl) Neoaves Synonyms Neornithes Gadow, 1883 Birds
are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves
(/ˈeɪviːz/), characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the
laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered
heart, and a strong yet lightweight skeleton. Birds live worldwide and
range in size from the 5.5 cm (2.2 in) bee hummingbird to the 2.8 m (9
ft 2 in) common ostrich. There are about ten thousand living species,
more than half of which are passerine, or "perching" birds. Birds have
wings whose development varies according to species; the only known
groups without wings are the extinct moa and elephant birds. Wings,
which are modified forelimbs, gave birds the ability to fly, although
further evolution has led to the loss of flight in some birds, including
ratites, penguins, and diverse endemic island species. The digestive
and respiratory systems of birds are also uniquely adapted for flight.
Some bird species of aquatic environments, particularly seabirds and
some waterbirds, have further evolved for swimming. The study of birds
is called ornithology. Birds are feathered
theropod dinosaurs and constitute the only known living dinosaurs.
Likewise, birds are considered reptiles in the modern cladistic sense of
the term, and their closest living relatives are the crocodilians.
Birds are descendants of the primitive avialans (whose members include
Archaeopteryx) which first appeared during the Late Jurassic. According
to DNA evidence, modern birds (Neornithes) evolved in the Early to Late
Cretaceous, and diversified dramatically around the time of the
Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 66 mya, which killed off the
pterosaurs and all non-avian dinosaurs.[5] Many
social species pass on knowledge across generations, which is
considered a form of culture. Birds are social, communicating with
visual signals, calls, and songs, and participating in such behaviours
as cooperative breeding and hunting, flocking, and mobbing of predators.
The vast majority of bird species are socially (but not necessarily
sexually) monogamous, usually for one breeding season at a time,
sometimes for years, and rarely for life. Other species have breeding
systems that are polygynous (one male with many females) or, rarely,
polyandrous (one female with many males). Birds produce offspring by
laying eggs which are fertilised through sexual reproduction. They are
usually laid in a nest and incubated by the parents. Most birds have an
extended period of parental care after hatching. Many
species of birds are economically important as food for human
consumption and raw material in manufacturing, with domesticated and
undomesticated birds being important sources of eggs, meat, and
feathers. Songbirds, parrots, and other species are popular as pets.
Guano (bird excrement) is harvested for use as a fertiliser. Birds
figure throughout human culture. About 120 to 130 species have become
extinct due to human activity since the 17th century, and hundreds more
before then. Human activity threatens about 1,200 bird species with
extinction, though efforts are underway to protect them. Recreational
birdwatching is an important part of the ecotourism industry. Evolution and classification Main article: Evolution of birds Slab of stone with fossil bones and feather impressions Archaeopteryx lithographica is often considered the oldest known true bird. The
first classification of birds was developed by Francis Willughby and
John Ray in their 1676 volume Ornithologiae.[7] Carl Linnaeus modified
that work in 1758 to devise the taxonomic classification system
currently in use.[8] Birds are categorised as the biological class Aves
in Linnaean taxonomy. Phylogenetic taxonomy places Aves in the clade
Theropoda.[9] Definition Aves and a
sister group, the order Crocodilia, contain the only living
representatives of the reptile clade Archosauria. During the late 1990s,
Aves was most commonly defined phylogenetically as all descendants of
the most recent common ancestor of modern birds and Archaeopteryx
lithographica.[10] However, an earlier definition proposed by Jacques
Gauthier gained wide currency in the 21st century, and is used by many
scientists including adherents to the PhyloCode. Gauthier defined Aves
to include only the crown group of the set of modern birds. This was
done by excluding most groups known only from fossils, and assigning
them, instead, to the broader group Avialae,[11] in part to avoid the
uncertainties about the placement of Archaeopteryx in relation to
animals traditionally thought of as theropod dinosaurs.[citation needed] Gauthier
and de Queiroz[12] identified four different definitions for the same
biological name "Aves", which is a problem. The authors proposed to
reserve the term Aves only for the crown group consisting of the last
common ancestor of all living birds and all of its descendants, which
corresponds to meaning number 4 below. He assigned other names to the
other groups.[citation needed] Reptiles Archosaurs Crocodiles Birds Turtles Squamates Lizards and snakes The birds' phylogenetic relationships to major living reptile groups Aves can mean all archosaurs closer to birds than to crocodiles (alternately Avemetatarsalia) Aves can mean those advanced archosaurs with feathers (alternately Avifilopluma) Aves can mean those feathered dinosaurs that fly (alternately Avialae) Aves
can mean the last common ancestor of all the currently living birds and
all of its descendants (a "crown group", in this sense synonymous with
Neornithes) Under the fourth definition Archaeopteryx,
traditionally considered one of the earliest members of Aves, is removed
from this group, becoming a non-avian dinosaur instead. These proposals
have been adopted by many researchers in the field of palaeontology and
bird evolution, though the exact definitions applied have been
inconsistent. Avialae, initially proposed to replace the traditional
fossil content of Aves, is often used synonymously with the vernacular
term "bird" by these researchers.[13] Maniraptoromorpha †Coelurus †Ornitholestes Maniraptoriformes †Ornithomimosauria Maniraptora †Alvarezsauridae Pennaraptora †Oviraptorosauria Paraves Cladogram showing the results of a phylogenetic study by Cau, 2018.[14] Most
researchers define Avialae as branch-based clade, though definitions
vary. Many authors have used a definition similar to "all theropods
closer to birds than to Deinonychus",[15][16] with Troodon being
sometimes added as a second external specifier in case it is closer to
birds than to Deinonychus.[17] Avialae is also occasionally defined as
an apomorphy-based clade (that is, one based on physical
characteristics). Jacques Gauthier, who named Avialae in 1986,
re-defined it in 2001 as all dinosaurs that possessed feathered wings
used in flapping flight, and the birds that descended from them.[12][18] Despite
being currently one of the most widely used, the crown-group definition
of Aves has been criticised by some researchers. Lee and Spencer (1997)
argued that, contrary to what Gauthier defended, this definition would
not increase the stability of the clade and the exact content of Aves
will always be uncertain because any defined clade (either crown or not)
will have few synapomorphies distinguishing it from its closest
relatives. Their alternative definition is synonymous to
Avifilopluma.[19] Dinosaurs and the origin of birds Main article: Origin of birds Paraves †Scansoriopterygidae †Eosinopteryx Eumaniraptora †Jinfengopteryx †Aurornis †Dromaeosauridae †Troodontidae Avialae Cladogram following the results of a phylogenetic study by Cau et al., 2015[20] Simplified phylogenetic tree showing the relationship between modern birds and dinosaurs[21] Based
on fossil and biological evidence, most scientists accept that birds
are a specialised subgroup of theropod dinosaurs[22] and, more
specifically, members of Maniraptora, a group of theropods which
includes dromaeosaurids and oviraptorosaurs, among others.[23] As
scientists have discovered more theropods closely related to birds, the
previously clear distinction between non-birds and birds has become
blurred. By the 2000s, discoveries in the Liaoning Province of northeast
China, which demonstrated many small theropod feathered dinosaurs,
contributed to this ambiguity.[24][25][26] Anchiornis huxleyi is an important source of information on the early evolution of birds in the Late Jurassic period.[27] The
consensus view in contemporary palaeontology is that the flying
theropods, or avialans, are the closest relatives of the
deinonychosaurs, which include dromaeosaurids and troodontids.[28]
Together, these form a group called Paraves. Some basal members of
Deinonychosauria, such as Microraptor, have features which may have
enabled them to glide or fly. The most basal deinonychosaurs were very
small. This evidence raises the possibility that the ancestor of all
paravians may have been arboreal, have been able to glide, or
both.[29][30] Unlike Archaeopteryx and the non-avialan feathered
dinosaurs, who primarily ate meat, studies suggest that the first
avialans were omnivores.[31] The Late Jurassic
Archaeopteryx is well known as one of the first transitional fossils to
be found, and it provided support for the theory of evolution in the
late 19th century. Archaeopteryx was the first fossil to display both
clearly traditional reptilian characteristics—teeth, clawed fingers, and
a long, lizard-like tail—as well as wings with flight feathers similar
to those of modern birds. It is not considered a direct ancestor of
birds, though it is possibly closely related to the true ancestor.[32] Early evolution See also: List of fossil bird genera White slab of rock left with cracks and impression of bird feathers and bone, including long paired tail feathers Confuciusornis
sanctus, a Cretaceous bird from China that lived 125 million years ago,
is the oldest known bird to have a beak.[33] Over 40% of key
traits found in modern birds evolved during the 60 million year
transition from the earliest bird-line archosaurs to the first
maniraptoromorphs, i.e. the first dinosaurs closer to living birds than
to Tyrannosaurus rex. The loss of osteoderms otherwise common in
archosaurs and acquisition of primitive feathers might have occurred
early during this phase.[14][34] After the appearance of
Maniraptoromorpha, the next 40 million years marked a continuous
reduction of body size and the accumulation of neotenic (juvenile-like)
characteristics. Hypercarnivory became increasingly less common while
braincases enlarged and forelimbs became longer.[14] The integument
evolved into complex, pennaceous feathers.[34] The
oldest known paravian (and probably the earliest avialan) fossils come
from the Tiaojishan Formation of China, which has been dated to the late
Jurassic period (Oxfordian stage), about 160 million years ago. The
avialan species from this time period include Anchiornis huxleyi,
Xiaotingia zhengi, and Aurornis xui.[13] The
well-known probable early avialan, Archaeopteryx, dates from slightly
later Jurassic rocks (about 155 million years old) from Germany. Many of
these early avialans shared unusual anatomical features that may be
ancestral to modern birds but were later lost during bird evolution.
These features include enlarged claws on the second toe which may have
been held clear of the ground in life, and long feathers or "hind wings"
covering the hind limbs and feet, which may have been used in aerial
maneuvering.[35] Avialans diversified into a
wide variety of forms during the Cretaceous period. Many groups retained
primitive characteristics, such as clawed wings and teeth, though the
latter were lost independently in a number of avialan groups, including
modern birds (Aves).[36] Increasingly stiff tails (especially the
outermost half) can be seen in the evolution of maniraptoromorphs, and
this process culminated in the appearance of the pygostyle, an
ossification of fused tail vertebrae.[14] In the late Cretaceous, about
100 million years ago, the ancestors of all modern birds evolved a more
open pelvis, allowing them to lay larger eggs compared to body size.[37]
Around 95 million years ago, they evolved a better sense of smell.[38] A
third stage of bird evolution starting with Ornithothoraces (the
"bird-chested" avialans) can be associated with the refining of
aerodynamics and flight capabilities, and the loss or co-ossification of
several skeletal features. Particularly significant are the development
of an enlarged, keeled sternum and the alula, and the loss of grasping
hands. [14] Avialae †Anchiornis †Archaeopteryx †Xiaotingia †Rahonavis †Jeholornis †Jixiangornis Euavialae †Balaur Avebrevicauda †Zhongjianornis †Sapeornis Pygostylia †Confuciusornithiformes †Protopteryx †Pengornis Ornithothoraces Cladogram following the results of a phylogenetic study by Cau et al., 2015[20] Early diversity of bird ancestors See also: Protobirds and Avialae Ornithothoraces †Enantiornithes Euornithes †Archaeorhynchus Ornithuromorpha †Patagopteryx †Vorona †Schizooura †Hongshanornithidae †Jianchangornis †Songlingornithidae †Gansus †Apsaravis Ornithurae †Hesperornithes †Ichthyornis †Vegavis Aves Mesozoic bird phylogeny simplified after Wang et al., 2015's phylogenetic analysis[39] Ichthyornis, which lived 93 million years ago, was the first known prehistoric bird relative preserved with teeth. The
first large, diverse lineage of short-tailed avialans to evolve were
the Enantiornithes, or "opposite birds", so named because the
construction of their shoulder bones was in reverse to that of modern
birds. Enantiornithes occupied a wide array of ecological niches, from
sand-probing shorebirds and fish-eaters to tree-dwelling forms and
seed-eaters. While they were the dominant group of avialans during the
Cretaceous period, enantiornithes became extinct along with many other
dinosaur groups at the end of the Mesozoic era.[36] Many
species of the second major avialan lineage to diversify, the
Euornithes (meaning "true birds", because they include the ancestors of
modern birds), were semi-aquatic and specialised in eating fish and
other small aquatic organisms. Unlike the Enantiornithes, which
dominated land-based and arboreal habitats, most early euornithes lacked
perching adaptations and likely included shorebird-like species,
waders, and swimming and diving species.[40] The
latter included the superficially gull-like Ichthyornis[41] and the
Hesperornithiformes, which became so well adapted to hunting fish in
marine environments that they lost the ability to fly and became
primarily aquatic.[36] The early euornithes also saw the development of
many traits associated with modern birds, like strongly keeled
breastbones, toothless, beaked portions of their jaws (though most
non-avian euornithes retained teeth in other parts of the jaws).[42]
Euornithes also included the first avialans to develop true pygostyle
and a fully mobile fan of tail feathers,[43] which may have replaced the
"hind wing" as the primary mode of aerial maneuverability and braking
in flight.[35] A study on mosaic evolution in
the avian skull found that the last common ancestor of all Neornithes
might have had a beak similar to that of the modern hook-billed vanga
and a skull similar to that of the Eurasian golden oriole. As both
species are small aerial and canopy foraging omnivores, a similar
ecological niche was inferred for this hypothetical ancestor.[44] Diversification of modern birds See also: Sibley–Ahlquist taxonomy of birds and dinosaur classification Aves Palaeognathae (ratites and tinamous) Neognathae Galloanserae (landfowl and waterfowl) Neoaves (all other birds including perching birds) Major groups of modern birds based on Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy Most
studies agree on a Cretaceous age for the most recent common ancestor
of modern birds but estimates range from the Early Cretaceous[3][45] to
the latest Cretaceous.[46][4] Similarly, there is no agreement on
whether most of the early diversification of modern birds occurred in
the Cretaceous and associated withe breakup of the supercontinent
Gondwana or occurred later and potentially as a consequence of the
Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event.[47] This disagreement is in part
caused by a divergence in the evidence; most molecular dating studies
suggests a Cretaceous evolutionary radiation, while fossil evidence
points to a Cenozoic radiation (the so-called 'rocks' versus 'clocks'
controversy). The discovery of Vegavis from the
Maastrichtian, the last stage of the Late Cretaceous proved that the
diversification of modern birds started before the Cenozoic era.[48] The
affinities of an earlier fossil, the possible galliform Austinornis
lentus, dated to about 85 million years ago,[49] are still too
controversial to provide a fossil evidence of modern bird
diversification. In 2020, Asteriornis from the Maastrichtian was
described, it appears to be a close relative of Galloanserae, the
earliest diverging lineage within Neognathae.[1] Attempts
to reconcile molecular and fossil evidence using genomic-scale DNA data
and comprehensive fossil information have not resolved the
controversy.[46][50] However, a 2015 estimate that used a new method for
calibrating molecular clocks confirmed that while modern birds
originated early in the Late Cretaceous, likely in Western Gondwana, a
pulse of diversification in all major groups occurred around the
Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event.[51] Modern birds would have
expanded from West Gondwana through two routes. One route was an
Antarctic interchange in the Paleogene. The other route was probably via
Paleocene land bridges between South American and North America, which
allowed for the rapid expansion and diversification of Neornithes into
the Holarctic and Paleotropics.[51] On the other hand, the occurrence of
Asteriornis in the Northern Hemisphere suggest that Neornithes
dispersed out of East Gondwana before the Paleocene.[1] Classification of bird orders See also: List of birds All
modern birds lie within the crown group Aves (alternately Neornithes),
which has two subdivisions: the Palaeognathae, which includes the
flightless ratites (such as the ostriches) and the weak-flying tinamous,
and the extremely diverse Neognathae, containing all other birds.[52]
These two subdivisions have variously been given the rank of
superorder,[53] cohort,[9] or infraclass.[54] Depending on the taxonomic
viewpoint, the number of known living bird species is around
10,906[55][56] although other sources may differ in their precise
number. Cladogram of modern bird relationships based on Braun & Kimball (2021)[57] Aves Palaeognathae Struthioniformes (ostriches) Rheiformes (rheas) Apterygiformes (kiwis) Tinamiformes (tinamous) Casuariiformes (emu and cassowaries) Neognathae Galloanserae Galliformes (chickens and relatives) Anseriformes (ducks and relatives) Neoaves Mirandornithes Phoenicopteriformes (flamingos) Podicipediformes (grebes) Columbimorphae Columbiformes (pigeons and doves) Mesitornithiformes (mesites) Pterocliformes (sandgrouse) Passerea Otidiformes (bustards) Cuculiformes (cuckoos) Musophagiformes (turacos) Gruiformes (rails and cranes) Charadriiformes (waders and relatives) Opisthocomiformes (hoatzin) Strisores Caprimulgiformes (nightjars) Vanescaves Nyctibiiformes (potoos) Steatornithiformes (oilbird) Podargiformes (frogmouths) Daedalornithes Aegotheliformes (owlet-nightjars) Apodiformes (swifts, treeswifts and hummingbirds) Phaethoquornithes Eurypygimorphae Phaethontiformes (tropicbirds) Eurypygiformes (sunbittern and kagu) Aequornithes Gaviiformes[58] (loons) Austrodyptornithes Procellariiformes (albatrosses and petrels) Sphenisciformes (penguins) Ciconiiformes (storks) Suliformes (boobies, cormorants, etc.) Pelecaniformes (pelicans, herons & ibises) (Ardeae) Telluraves Accipitrimorphae Cathartiformes (New World vultures) Accipitriformes (hawks and relatives) Strigiformes (owls) Coraciimorphae Coliiformes (mousebirds) Cavitaves Leptosomiformes (cuckoo roller) Trogoniformes (trogons and quetzals) Picocoraciae Bucerotiformes (hornbills and relatives) Picodynastornithes Coraciiformes (kingfishers and relatives) Piciformes (woodpeckers and relatives) Australaves Cariamiformes (seriemas) Eufalconimorphae Falconiformes (falcons) Psittacopasserae Psittaciformes (parrots) Passeriformes (passerines) The
classification of birds is a contentious issue. Sibley and Ahlquist's
Phylogeny and Classification of Birds (1990) is a landmark work on the
subject.[59] Most evidence seems to suggest the assignment of orders is
accurate,[60] but scientists disagree about the relationships among the
orders themselves; evidence from modern bird anatomy, fossils and DNA
have all been brought to bear on the problem, but no strong consensus
has emerged. Fossil and molecular evidence from the 2010s providing an
increasingly clear picture of the evolution of modern bird
orders.[46][50] Genomics See also: list of sequenced animal genomes As
of 2010, the genome had been sequenced for only two birds, the chicken
and the zebra finch. As of 2022 the genomes of 542 species of birds had
been completed. At least one genome has been sequenced from every
order.[61][62] These include at least one species in about 90% of extant
avian families (218 out of 236 families recognised by the Howard and
Moore Checklist).[63] Being able to sequence
and compare whole genomes gives researchers many types of information,
about genes, the DNA that regulates the genes, and their evolutionary
history. This has led to reconsideration of some of the classifications
that were based solely on the identification of protein-coding genes.
Waterbirds such as pelicans and flamingos, for example, may have in
common specific adaptations suited to their environment that were
developed independently.[61][62] Distribution See also: Lists of birds by region and List of birds by population small bird withpale belly and breast and patterned wing and head stands on concrete The range of the house sparrow has expanded dramatically due to human activities.[64] Birds
live and breed in most terrestrial habitats and on all seven
continents, reaching their southern extreme in the snow petrel's
breeding colonies up to 440 kilometres (270 mi) inland in
Antarctica.[65] The highest bird diversity occurs in tropical regions.
It was earlier thought that this high diversity was the result of higher
speciation rates in the tropics; however studies from the 2000s found
higher speciation rates in the high latitudes that were offset by
greater extinction rates than in the tropics.[66] Many species migrate
annually over great distances and across oceans; several families of
birds have adapted to life both on the world's oceans and in them, and
some seabird species come ashore only to breed,[67] while some penguins
have been recorded diving up to 300 metres (980 ft) deep.[68] Many
bird species have established breeding populations in areas to which
they have been introduced by humans. Some of these introductions have
been deliberate; the ring-necked pheasant, for example, has been
introduced around the world as a game bird.[69] Others have been
accidental, such as the establishment of wild monk parakeets in several
North American cities after their escape from captivity.[70] Some
species, including cattle egret,[71] yellow-headed caracara[72] and
galah,[73] have spread naturally far beyond their original ranges as
agricultural expansion created alternative habitats although modern
practices of intensive agriculture have negatively impacted farmland
bird populations.[74] Anatomy and physiology Main articles: Bird anatomy and Bird vision See also: Egg tooth External
anatomy of a bird (example: yellow-wattled lapwing): 1 Beak, 2 Head, 3
Iris, 4 Pupil, 5 Mantle, 6 Lesser coverts, 7 Scapulars, 8 Median
coverts, 9 Tertials, 10 Rump, 11 Primaries, 12 Vent, 13 Thigh, 14
Tibio-tarsal articulation, 15 Tarsus, 16 Foot, 17 Tibia, 18 Belly, 19
Flanks, 20 Breast, 21 Throat, 22 Wattle, 23 Eyestripe Compared with other vertebrates, birds have a body plan that shows many unusual adaptations, mostly to facilitate flight. Skeletal system Main article: Bird_anatomy § Skeletal_system The
skeleton consists of very lightweight bones. They have large air-filled
cavities (called pneumatic cavities) which connect with the respiratory
system.[75] The skull bones in adults are fused and do not show cranial
sutures.[76] The orbital cavities that house the eyeballs are large and
separated from each other by a bony septum (partition). The spine has
cervical, thoracic, lumbar and caudal regions with the number of
cervical (neck) vertebrae highly variable and especially flexible, but
movement is reduced in the anterior thoracic vertebrae and absent in the
later vertebrae.[77] The last few are fused with the pelvis to form the
synsacrum.[76] The ribs are flattened and the sternum is keeled for the
attachment of flight muscles except in the flightless bird orders. The
forelimbs are modified into wings.[78] The wings are more or less
developed depending on the species; the only known groups that lost
their wings are the extinct moa and elephant birds.[79] Excretory system Like
the reptiles, birds are primarily uricotelic, that is, their kidneys
extract nitrogenous waste from their bloodstream and excrete it as uric
acid, instead of urea or ammonia, through the ureters into the
intestine. Birds do not have a urinary bladder or external urethral
opening and (with exception of the ostrich) uric acid is excreted along
with faeces as a semisolid waste.[80][81][82] However, birds such as
hummingbirds can be facultatively ammonotelic, excreting most of the
nitrogenous wastes as ammonia.[83] They also excrete creatine, rather
than creatinine like mammals.[76] This material, as well as the output
of the intestines, emerges from the bird's cloaca.[84][85] The cloaca is
a multi-purpose opening: waste is expelled through it, most birds mate
by joining cloaca, and females lay eggs from it. In addition, many
species of birds regurgitate pellets.[86] It is
a common but not universal feature of altricial passerine nestlings
(born helpless, under constant parental care) that instead of excreting
directly into the nest, they produce a fecal sac. This is a
mucus-covered pouch that allows parents to either dispose of the waste
outside the nest or to recycle the waste through their own digestive
system.[87] Reproductive system Males
within Palaeognathae (with the exception of the kiwis), the
Anseriformes (with the exception of screamers), and in rudimentary forms
in Galliformes (but fully developed in Cracidae) possess a penis, which
is never present in Neoaves.[88][89] The length is thought to be
related to sperm competition.[90] For male birds to get an erection,
they depend on lymphatic fluid instead of blood.[91] When not
copulating, it is hidden within the proctodeum compartment within the
cloaca, just inside the vent. Female birds have sperm storage
tubules[92] that allow sperm to remain viable long after copulation, a
hundred days in some species.[93] Sperm from multiple males may compete
through this mechanism. Most female birds have a single ovary and a
single oviduct, both on the left side,[94] but there are exceptions:
species in at least 16 different orders of birds have two ovaries. Even
these species, however, tend to have a single oviduct.[94] It has been
speculated that this might be an adaptation to flight, but males have
two testes, and it is also observed that the gonads in both sexes
decrease dramatically in size outside the breeding season.[95][96] Also
terrestrial birds generally have a single ovary, as does the platypus,
an egg-laying mammal. A more likely explanation is that the egg develops
a shell while passing through the oviduct over a period of about a day,
so that if two eggs were to develop at the same time, there would be a
risk to survival.[94] While rare, mostly abortive, parthenogenesis is
not unknown in birds and eggs can be diploid, automictic and results in
male offspring.[97] Birds are solely
gonochoric.[98] Meaning they have two sexes: either female or male. The
sex of birds is determined by the Z and W sex chromosomes, rather than
by the X and Y chromosomes present in mammals. Male birds have two Z
chromosomes (ZZ), and female birds have a W chromosome and a Z
chromosome (WZ).[76] A complex system of disassortative mating with two
morphs is involved in the white-throated sparrow Zonotrichia albicollis,
where white- and tan-browed morphs of opposite sex pair, making it
appear as if four sexes were involved since any individual is compatible
with only a fourth of the population.[99] In
nearly all species of birds, an individual's sex is determined at
fertilisation. However, one 2007 study claimed to demonstrate
temperature-dependent sex determination among the Australian
brushturkey, for which higher temperatures during incubation resulted in
a higher female-to-male sex ratio.[100] This, however, was later proven
to not be the case. These birds do not exhibit temperature-dependent
sex determination, but temperature-dependent sex mortality.[101] Respiratory and circulatory systems Birds
have one of the most complex respiratory systems of all animal
groups.[76] Upon inhalation, 75% of the fresh air bypasses the lungs and
flows directly into a posterior air sac which extends from the lungs
and connects with air spaces in the bones and fills them with air. The
other 25% of the air goes directly into the lungs. When the bird
exhales, the used air flows out of the lungs and the stored fresh air
from the posterior air sac is simultaneously forced into the lungs.
Thus, a bird's lungs receive a constant supply of fresh air during both
inhalation and exhalation.[102] Sound production is achieved using the
syrinx, a muscular chamber incorporating multiple tympanic membranes
which diverges from the lower end of the trachea;[103] the trachea being
elongated in some species, increasing the volume of vocalisations and
the perception of the bird's size.[104] In
birds, the main arteries taking blood away from the heart originate from
the right aortic arch (or pharyngeal arch), unlike in the mammals where
the left aortic arch forms this part of the aorta.[76] The postcava
receives blood from the limbs via the renal portal system. Unlike in
mammals, the circulating red blood cells in birds retain their
nucleus.[105] Heart type and features Didactic model of an avian heart The
avian circulatory system is driven by a four-chambered, myogenic heart
contained in a fibrous pericardial sac. This pericardial sac is filled
with a serous fluid for lubrication.[106] The heart itself is divided
into a right and left half, each with an atrium and ventricle. The
atrium and ventricles of each side are separated by atrioventricular
valves which prevent back flow from one chamber to the next during
contraction. Being myogenic, the heart's pace is maintained by pacemaker
cells found in the sinoatrial node, located on the right atrium.[107] The
sinoatrial node uses calcium to cause a depolarising signal
transduction pathway from the atrium through right and left
atrioventricular bundle which communicates contraction to the
ventricles. The avian heart also consists of muscular arches that are
made up of thick bundles of muscular layers. Much like a mammalian
heart, the avian heart is composed of endocardial, myocardial and
epicardial layers.[106] The atrium walls tend to be thinner than the
ventricle walls, due to the intense ventricular contraction used to pump
oxygenated blood throughout the body. Avian hearts are generally larger
than mammalian hearts when compared to body mass. This adaptation
allows more blood to be pumped to meet the high metabolic need
associated with flight.[108] Organisation Birds
have a very efficient system for diffusing oxygen into the blood; birds
have a ten times greater surface area to gas exchange volume than
mammals. As a result, birds have more blood in their capillaries per
unit of volume of lung than a mammal.[108] The arteries are composed of
thick elastic muscles to withstand the pressure of the ventricular
contractions, and become more rigid as they move away from the heart.
Blood moves through the arteries, which undergo vasoconstriction, and
into arterioles which act as a transportation system to distribute
primarily oxygen as well as nutrients to all tissues of the body.[109]
As the arterioles move away from the heart and into individual organs
and tissues they are further divided to increase surface area and slow
blood flow. Blood travels through the arterioles and moves into the
capillaries where gas exchange can occur.[citation needed] Capillaries
are organised into capillary beds in tissues; it is here that blood
exchanges oxygen for carbon dioxide waste. In the capillary beds, blood
flow is slowed to allow maximum diffusion of oxygen into the tissues.
Once the blood has become deoxygenated, it travels through venules then
veins and back to the heart. Veins, unlike arteries, are thin and rigid
as they do not need to withstand extreme pressure. As blood travels
through the venules to the veins a funneling occurs called vasodilation
bringing blood back to the heart.[109] Once the blood reaches the heart,
it moves first into the right atrium, then the right ventricle to be
pumped through the lungs for further gas exchange of carbon dioxide
waste for oxygen. Oxygenated blood then flows from the lungs through the
left atrium to the left ventricle where it is pumped out to the
body.[citation needed] Nervous system The
nervous system is large relative to the bird's size.[76] The most
developed part of the brain is the one that controls the flight-related
functions, while the cerebellum coordinates movement and the cerebrum
controls behaviour patterns, navigation, mating and nest building. Most
birds have a poor sense of smell[110] with notable exceptions including
kiwis,[111] New World vultures[112] and tubenoses.[113] The avian visual
system is usually highly developed. Water birds have special flexible
lenses, allowing accommodation for vision in air and water.[76] Some
species also have dual fovea. Birds are tetrachromatic, possessing
ultraviolet (UV) sensitive cone cells in the eye as well as green, red
and blue ones.[114] They also have double cones, likely to mediate
achromatic vision.[115] The nictitating membrane as it covers the eye of a masked lapwing Many
birds show plumage patterns in ultraviolet that are invisible to the
human eye; some birds whose sexes appear similar to the naked eye are
distinguished by the presence of ultraviolet reflective patches on their
feathers. Male blue tits have an ultraviolet reflective crown patch
which is displayed in courtship by posturing and raising of their nape
feathers.[116] Ultraviolet light is also used in foraging—kestrels have
been shown to search for prey by detecting the UV reflective urine trail
marks left on the ground by rodents.[117] With the exception of pigeons
and a few other species,[118] the eyelids of birds are not used in
blinking. Instead the eye is lubricated by the nictitating membrane, a
third eyelid that moves horizontally.[119] The nictitating membrane also
covers the eye and acts as a contact lens in many aquatic birds.[76]
The bird retina has a fan shaped blood supply system called the
pecten.[76] Eyes of most birds are large, not
very round and capable of only limited movement in the orbits,[76]
typically 10–20°.[120] Birds with eyes on the sides of their heads have a
wide visual field, while birds with eyes on the front of their heads,
such as owls, have binocular vision and can estimate the depth of
field.[120][121] The avian ear lacks external pinnae but is covered by
feathers, although in some birds, such as the Asio, Bubo and Otus owls,
these feathers form tufts which resemble ears. The inner ear has a
cochlea, but it is not spiral as in mammals.[122] Defence and intraspecific combat A
few species are able to use chemical defences against predators; some
Procellariiformes can eject an unpleasant stomach oil against an
aggressor,[123] and some species of pitohuis from New Guinea have a
powerful neurotoxin in their skin and feathers.[124] A
lack of field observations limit our knowledge, but intraspecific
conflicts are known to sometimes result in injury or death.[125] The
screamers (Anhimidae), some jacanas (Jacana, Hydrophasianus), the
spur-winged goose (Plectropterus), the torrent duck (Merganetta) and
nine species of lapwing (Vanellus) use a sharp spur on the wing as a
weapon. The steamer ducks (Tachyeres), geese and swans (Anserinae), the
solitaire (Pezophaps), sheathbills (Chionis), some guans (Crax) and
stone curlews (Burhinus) use a bony knob on the alular metacarpal to
punch and hammer opponents.[125] The jacanas Actophilornis and
Irediparra have an expanded, blade-like radius. The extinct Xenicibis
was unique in having an elongate forelimb and massive hand which likely
functioned in combat or defence as a jointed club or flail. Swans, for
instance, may strike with the bony spurs and bite when defending eggs or
young.[125] Feathers, plumage, and scales Main articles: Feather, Flight feather, and Down feather Owl with eyes closed in front of similarly coloured tree trunk partly obscured by green leaves The disruptively patterned plumage of the African scops owl allows it to blend in with its surroundings. Feathers
are a feature characteristic of birds (though also present in some
dinosaurs not currently considered to be true birds). They facilitate
flight, provide insulation that aids in thermoregulation, and are used
in display, camouflage, and signalling.[76] There are several types of
feathers, each serving its own set of purposes. Feathers are epidermal
growths attached to the skin and arise only in specific tracts of skin
called pterylae. The distribution pattern of these feather tracts
(pterylosis) is used in taxonomy and systematics. The arrangement and
appearance of feathers on the body, called plumage, may vary within
species by age, social status,[126] and sex.[127] Plumage
is regularly moulted; the standard plumage of a bird that has moulted
after breeding is known as the "non-breeding" plumage, or—in the
Humphrey–Parkes terminology—"basic" plumage; breeding plumages or
variations of the basic plumage are known under the Humphrey–Parkes
system as "alternate" plumages.[128] Moulting is annual in most species,
although some may have two moults a year, and large birds of prey may
moult only once every few years. Moulting patterns vary across species.
In passerines, flight feathers are replaced one at a time with the
innermost primary being the first. When the fifth of sixth primary is
replaced, the outermost tertiaries begin to drop. After the innermost
tertiaries are moulted, the secondaries starting from the innermost
begin to drop and this proceeds to the outer feathers (centrifugal
moult). The greater primary coverts are moulted in synchrony with the
primary that they overlap.[129] A small number
of species, such as ducks and geese, lose all of their flight feathers
at once, temporarily becoming flightless.[130] As a general rule, the
tail feathers are moulted and replaced starting with the innermost
pair.[129] Centripetal moults of tail feathers are however seen in the
Phasianidae.[131] The centrifugal moult is modified in the tail feathers
of woodpeckers and treecreepers, in that it begins with the second
innermost pair of feathers and finishes with the central pair of
feathers so that the bird maintains a functional climbing
tail.[129][132] The general pattern seen in passerines is that the
primaries are replaced outward, secondaries inward, and the tail from
centre outward.[133] Before nesting, the females of most bird species
gain a bare brood patch by losing feathers close to the belly. The skin
there is well supplied with blood vessels and helps the bird in
incubation.[134] Red parrot with yellow bill and wing feathers in bill Red lory preening Feathers
require maintenance and birds preen or groom them daily, spending an
average of around 9% of their daily time on this.[135] The bill is used
to brush away foreign particles and to apply waxy secretions from the
uropygial gland; these secretions protect the feathers' flexibility and
act as an antimicrobial agent, inhibiting the growth of
feather-degrading bacteria.[136] This may be supplemented with the
secretions of formic acid from ants, which birds receive through a
behaviour known as anting, to remove feather parasites.[137] The
scales of birds are composed of the same keratin as beaks, claws, and
spurs. They are found mainly on the toes and metatarsus, but may be
found further up on the ankle in some birds. Most bird scales do not
overlap significantly, except in the cases of kingfishers and
woodpeckers. The scales of birds are thought to be homologous to those
of reptiles and mammals.[138] Flight Main articles: Bird flight and Flightless birds Black bird with white chest in flight with wings facing down and tail fanned and down pointing Restless flycatcher in the downstroke of flapping flight Most
birds can fly, which distinguishes them from almost all other
vertebrate classes. Flight is the primary means of locomotion for most
bird species and is used for searching for food and for escaping from
predators. Birds have various adaptations for flight, including a
lightweight skeleton, two large flight muscles, the pectoralis (which
accounts for 15% of the total mass of the bird) and the
supracoracoideus, as well as a modified forelimb (wing) that serves as
an aerofoil.[76] Wing shape and size generally
determine a bird's flight style and performance; many birds combine
powered, flapping flight with less energy-intensive soaring flight.
About 60 extant bird species are flightless, as were many extinct
birds.[139] Flightlessness often arises in birds on isolated islands,
most likely due to limited resources and the absence of mammalian land
predators.[140] Flightlessness is almost exclusively correlated with
gigantism due to an island's inherent condition of isolation.[141]
Although flightless, penguins use similar musculature and movements to
"fly" through the water, as do some flight-capable birds such as auks,
shearwaters and dippers.[142] Behaviour Most
birds are diurnal, but some birds, such as many species of owls and
nightjars, are nocturnal or crepuscular (active during twilight hours),
and many coastal waders feed when the tides are appropriate, by day or
night.[143] Diet and feeding Illustration of the heads of 16 types of birds with different shapes and sizes of beak Feeding adaptations in beaks Birds'
diets are varied and often include nectar, fruit, plants, seeds,
carrion, and various small animals, including other birds.[76] The
digestive system of birds is unique, with a crop for storage and a
gizzard that contains swallowed stones for grinding food to compensate
for the lack of teeth.[144] Some species such as pigeons and some
psittacine species do not have a gallbladder.[145] Most birds are highly
adapted for rapid digestion to aid with flight.[146] Some migratory
birds have adapted to use protein stored in many parts of their bodies,
including protein from the intestines, as additional energy during
migration.[147] Birds that employ many
strategies to obtain food or feed on a variety of food items are called
generalists, while others that concentrate time and effort on specific
food items or have a single strategy to obtain food are considered
specialists.[76] Avian foraging strategies can vary widely by species.
Many birds glean for insects, invertebrates, fruit, or seeds. Some hunt
insects by suddenly attacking from a branch. Those species that seek
pest insects are considered beneficial 'biological control agents' and
their presence encouraged in biological pest control programmes.[148]
Combined, insectivorous birds eat 400–500 million metric tons of
arthropods annually.[149] Nectar feeders such
as hummingbirds, sunbirds, lories, and lorikeets amongst others have
specially adapted brushy tongues and in many cases bills designed to fit
co-adapted flowers.[150] Kiwis and shorebirds with long bills probe for
invertebrates; shorebirds' varied bill lengths and feeding methods
result in the separation of ecological niches.[76][151] Loons, diving
ducks, penguins and auks pursue their prey underwater, using their wings
or feet for propulsion,[67] while aerial predators such as sulids,
kingfishers and terns plunge dive after their prey. Flamingos, three
species of prion, and some ducks are filter feeders.[152][153] Geese and
dabbling ducks are primarily grazers.[154][155] Some
species, including frigatebirds, gulls,[156] and skuas,[157] engage in
kleptoparasitism, stealing food items from other birds. Kleptoparasitism
is thought to be a supplement to food obtained by hunting, rather than a
significant part of any species' diet; a study of great frigatebirds
stealing from masked boobies estimated that the frigatebirds stole at
most 40% of their food and on average stole only 5%.[158] Other birds
are scavengers; some of these, like vultures, are specialised carrion
eaters, while others, like gulls, corvids, or other birds of prey, are
opportunists.[159] Water and drinking Water
is needed by many birds although their mode of excretion and lack of
sweat glands reduces the physiological demands.[160] Some desert birds
can obtain their water needs entirely from moisture in their food. They
may also have other adaptations such as allowing their body temperature
to rise, saving on moisture loss from evaporative cooling or
panting.[161] Seabirds can drink seawater and have salt glands inside
the head that eliminate excess salt out of the nostrils.[162] Most
birds scoop water in their beaks and raise their head to let water run
down the throat. Some species, especially of arid zones, belonging to
the pigeon, finch, mousebird, button-quail and bustard families are
capable of sucking up water without the need to tilt back their
heads.[163] Some desert birds depend on water sources and sandgrouse are
particularly well known for their daily congregations at waterholes.
Nesting sandgrouse and many plovers carry water to their young by
wetting their belly feathers.[164] Some birds carry water for chicks at
the nest in their crop or regurgitate it along with food. The pigeon
family, flamingos and penguins have adaptations to produce a nutritive
fluid called crop milk that they provide to their chicks.[165] Feather care Main article: Preening Feathers,
being critical to the survival of a bird, require maintenance. Apart
from physical wear and tear, feathers face the onslaught of fungi,
ectoparasitic feather mites and bird lice.[166] The physical condition
of feathers are maintained by preening often with the application of
secretions from the preen gland. Birds also bathe in water or dust
themselves. While some birds dip into shallow water, more aerial species
may make aerial dips into water and arboreal species often make use of
dew or rain that collect on leaves. Birds of arid regions make use of
loose soil to dust-bathe. A behaviour termed as anting in which the bird
encourages ants to run through their plumage is also thought to help
them reduce the ectoparasite load in feathers. Many species will spread
out their wings and expose them to direct sunlight and this too is
thought to help in reducing fungal and ectoparasitic activity that may
lead to feather damage.[167][168] Migration Main article: Bird migration A flock of Canada geese in V formation Many
bird species migrate to take advantage of global differences of
seasonal temperatures, therefore optimising availability of food sources
and breeding habitat. These migrations vary among the different groups.
Many landbirds, shorebirds, and waterbirds undertake annual
long-distance migrations, usually triggered by the length of daylight as
well as weather conditions. These birds are characterised by a breeding
season spent in the temperate or polar regions and a non-breeding
season in the tropical regions or opposite hemisphere. Before migration,
birds substantially increase body fats and reserves and reduce the size
of some of their organs.[169][170] Migration
is highly demanding energetically, particularly as birds need to cross
deserts and oceans without refuelling. Landbirds have a flight range of
around 2,500 km (1,600 mi) and shorebirds can fly up to 4,000 km (2,500
mi),[76] although the bar-tailed godwit is capable of non-stop flights
of up to 10,200 km (6,300 mi).[171] Seabirds also undertake long
migrations, the longest annual migration being those of sooty
shearwaters, which nest in New Zealand and Chile and spend the northern
summer feeding in the North Pacific off Japan, Alaska and California, an
annual round trip of 64,000 km (39,800 mi).[172] Other seabirds
disperse after breeding, travelling widely but having no set migration
route. Albatrosses nesting in the Southern Ocean often undertake
circumpolar trips between breeding seasons.[173] A map of the Pacific Ocean with several coloured lines representing bird routes running from New Zealand to Korea The
routes of satellite-tagged bar-tailed godwits migrating north from New
Zealand. This species has the longest known non-stop migration of any
species, up to 10,200 km (6,300 mi). Some bird species
undertake shorter migrations, travelling only as far as is required to
avoid bad weather or obtain food. Irruptive species such as the boreal
finches are one such group and can commonly be found at a location in
one year and absent the next. This type of migration is normally
associated with food availability.[174] Species may also travel shorter
distances over part of their range, with individuals from higher
latitudes travelling into the existing range of conspecifics; others
undertake partial migrations, where only a fraction of the population,
usually females and subdominant males, migrates.[175] Partial migration
can form a large percentage of the migration behaviour of birds in some
regions; in Australia, surveys found that 44% of non-passerine birds and
32% of passerines were partially migratory.[176] Altitudinal
migration is a form of short-distance migration in which birds spend
the breeding season at higher altitudes and move to lower ones during
suboptimal conditions. It is most often triggered by temperature changes
and usually occurs when the normal territories also become inhospitable
due to lack of food.[177] Some species may also be nomadic, holding no
fixed territory and moving according to weather and food availability.
Parrots as a family are overwhelmingly neither migratory nor sedentary
but considered to either be dispersive, irruptive, nomadic or undertake
small and irregular migrations.[178] The
ability of birds to return to precise locations across vast distances
has been known for some time; in an experiment conducted in the 1950s, a
Manx shearwater released in Boston in the United States returned to its
colony in Skomer, in Wales within 13 days, a distance of 5,150 km
(3,200 mi).[179] Birds navigate during migration using a variety of
methods. For diurnal migrants, the sun is used to navigate by day, and a
stellar compass is used at night. Birds that use the sun compensate for
the changing position of the sun during the day by the use of an
internal clock.[76] Orientation with the stellar compass depends on the
position of the constellations surrounding Polaris.[180] These are
backed up in some species by their ability to sense the Earth's
geomagnetism through specialised photoreceptors.[181] Communication See also: Bird vocalisation Bird song 0:39 Song of the house wren, a common North American songbird Mimicry 0:23 A tooth-billed bowerbird mimicking a spangled drongo Drumming 0:03 A woodpecker drumming on wood Problems playing these files? See media help. Birds
communicate primarily using visual and auditory signals. Signals can be
interspecific (between species) and intraspecific (within species). Birds
sometimes use plumage to assess and assert social dominance,[182] to
display breeding condition in sexually selected species, or to make
threatening displays, as in the sunbittern's mimicry of a large predator
to ward off hawks and protect young chicks.[183] Large brown patterned ground bird with outstretched wings each with a large spot in the centre The startling display of the sunbittern mimics a large predator. Visual
communication among birds may also involve ritualised displays, which
have developed from non-signalling actions such as preening, the
adjustments of feather position, pecking, or other behaviour. These
displays may signal aggression or submission or may contribute to the
formation of pair-bonds.[76] The most elaborate displays occur during
courtship, where "dances" are often formed from complex combinations of
many possible component movements;[184] males' breeding success may
depend on the quality of such displays.[185] Bird
calls and songs, which are produced in the syrinx, are the major means
by which birds communicate with sound. This communication can be very
complex; some species can operate the two sides of the syrinx
independently, allowing the simultaneous production of two different
songs.[103] Calls are used for a variety of purposes, including mate
attraction,[76] evaluation of potential mates,[186] bond formation, the
claiming and maintenance of territories,[76] the identification of other
individuals (such as when parents look for chicks in colonies or when
mates reunite at the start of breeding season),[187] and the warning of
other birds of potential predators, sometimes with specific information
about the nature of the threat.[188] Some birds also use mechanical
sounds for auditory communication. The Coenocorypha snipes of New
Zealand drive air through their feathers,[189] woodpeckers drum for
long-distance communication,[190] and palm cockatoos use tools to
drum.[191] Flocking and other associations massive flock of tiny birds seen from distance so that birds appear as specks Red-billed queleas, the most numerous species of wild bird,[192] form enormous flocks – sometimes tens of thousands strong. While
some birds are essentially territorial or live in small family groups,
other birds may form large flocks. The principal benefits of flocking
are safety in numbers and increased foraging efficiency.[76] Defence
against predators is particularly important in closed habitats like
forests, where ambush predation is common and multiple eyes can provide a
valuable early warning system. This has led to the development of many
mixed-species feeding flocks, which are usually composed of small
numbers of many species; these flocks provide safety in numbers but
increase potential competition for resources.[193] Costs of flocking
include bullying of socially subordinate birds by more dominant birds
and the reduction of feeding efficiency in certain cases.[194] Birds
sometimes also form associations with non-avian species. Plunge-diving
seabirds associate with dolphins and tuna, which push shoaling fish
towards the surface.[195] Some species of hornbills have a mutualistic
relationship with dwarf mongooses, in which they forage together and
warn each other of nearby birds of prey and other predators.[196] Resting and roosting "Roosting" redirects here. For other uses, see Roost. Pink flamingo with grey legs and long neck pressed against body and head tucked under wings Many birds, like this American flamingo, tuck their head into their back when sleeping. The
high metabolic rates of birds during the active part of the day is
supplemented by rest at other times. Sleeping birds often use a type of
sleep known as vigilant sleep, where periods of rest are interspersed
with quick eye-opening "peeks", allowing them to be sensitive to
disturbances and enable rapid escape from threats.[197] Swifts are
believed to be able to sleep in flight and radar observations suggest
that they orient themselves to face the wind in their roosting
flight.[198] It has been suggested that there may be certain kinds of
sleep which are possible even when in flight.[199] Some
birds have also demonstrated the capacity to fall into slow-wave sleep
one hemisphere of the brain at a time. The birds tend to exercise this
ability depending upon its position relative to the outside of the
flock. This may allow the eye opposite the sleeping hemisphere to remain
vigilant for predators by viewing the outer margins of the flock. This
adaptation is also known from marine mammals.[200] Communal roosting is
common because it lowers the loss of body heat and decreases the risks
associated with predators.[201] Roosting sites are often chosen with
regard to thermoregulation and safety.[202] Unusual mobile roost sites
include large herbivores on the African savanna that are used by
oxpeckers.[203] Many sleeping birds bend their
heads over their backs and tuck their bills in their back feathers,
although others place their beaks among their breast feathers. Many
birds rest on one leg, while some may pull up their legs into their
feathers, especially in cold weather. Perching birds have a
tendon-locking mechanism that helps them hold on to the perch when they
are asleep. Many ground birds, such as quails and pheasants, roost in
trees. A few parrots of the genus Loriculus roost hanging upside
down.[204] Some hummingbirds go into a nightly state of torpor
accompanied with a reduction of their metabolic rates.[205] This
physiological adaptation shows in nearly a hundred other species,
including owlet-nightjars, nightjars, and woodswallows. One species, the
common poorwill, even enters a state of hibernation.[206] Birds do not
have sweat glands, but can lose water directly through the skin, and
they may cool themselves by moving to shade, standing in water, panting,
increasing their surface area, fluttering their throat or using special
behaviours like urohidrosis to cool themselves.[207][208] Breeding See also: Category:Avian sexuality, Animal sexual behaviour § Birds, Seabird breeding behaviour, and Sexual selection in birds Social systems Bird faces up with green face, black breast and pink lower body. Elaborate long feathers on the wings and tail. Like others of its family, the male Raggiana bird-of-paradise has elaborate breeding plumage used to impress females.[209] Ninety-five
per cent of bird species are socially monogamous. These species pair
for at least the length of the breeding season or—in some cases—for
several years or until the death of one mate.[210] Monogamy allows for
both paternal care and biparental care, which is especially important
for species in which care from both the female and the male parent is
required in order to successfully rear a brood.[211] Among many socially
monogamous species, extra-pair copulation (infidelity) is common.[212]
Such behaviour typically occurs between dominant males and females
paired with subordinate males, but may also be the result of forced
copulation in ducks and other anatids.[213] For
females, possible benefits of extra-pair copulation include getting
better genes for her offspring and insuring against the possibility of
infertility in her mate.[214] Males of species that engage in extra-pair
copulations will closely guard their mates to ensure the parentage of
the offspring that they raise.[215] Other
mating systems, including polygyny, polyandry, polygamy, polygynandry,
and promiscuity, also occur.[76] Polygamous breeding systems arise when
females are able to raise broods without the help of males.[76] Mating
systems vary across bird families[216] but variations within species are
thought to be driven by environmental conditions.[217] Breeding
usually involves some form of courtship display, typically performed by
the male.[218] Most displays are rather simple and involve some type of
song. Some displays, however, are quite elaborate. Depending on the
species, these may include wing or tail drumming, dancing, aerial
flights, or communal lekking. Females are generally the ones that drive
partner selection,[219] although in the polyandrous phalaropes, this is
reversed: plainer males choose brightly coloured females.[220] Courtship
feeding, billing and allopreening are commonly performed between
partners, generally after the birds have paired and mated.[221] Homosexual
behaviour has been observed in males or females in numerous species of
birds, including copulation, pair-bonding, and joint parenting of
chicks.[222] Over 130 avian species around the world engage in sexual
interactions between the same sex or homosexual behaviours. "Same-sex
courtship activities may involve elaborate displays, synchronized
dances, gift-giving ceremonies, or behaviors at specific display areas
including bowers, arenas, or leks."[223] Territories, nesting and incubation See also: Bird nest Many
birds actively defend a territory from others of the same species
during the breeding season; maintenance of territories protects the food
source for their chicks. Species that are unable to defend feeding
territories, such as seabirds and swifts, often breed in colonies
instead; this is thought to offer protection from predators. Colonial
breeders defend small nesting sites, and competition between and within
species for nesting sites can be intense.[224] All
birds lay amniotic eggs with hard shells made mostly of calcium
carbonate.[76] Hole and burrow nesting species tend to lay white or pale
eggs, while open nesters lay camouflaged eggs. There are many
exceptions to this pattern, however; the ground-nesting nightjars have
pale eggs, and camouflage is instead provided by their plumage. Species
that are victims of brood parasites have varying egg colours to improve
the chances of spotting a parasite's egg, which forces female parasites
to match their eggs to those of their hosts.[225] Yellow weaver (bird) with black head hangs an upside-down nest woven out of grass fronds. Male golden-backed weavers construct elaborate suspended nests out of grass. Bird
eggs are usually laid in a nest. Most species create somewhat elaborate
nests, which can be cups, domes, plates, mounds, or burrows.[226] Some
bird nests can be a simple scrape, with minimal or no lining; most
seabird and wader nests are no more than a scrape on the ground. Most
birds build nests in sheltered, hidden areas to avoid predation, but
large or colonial birds—which are more capable of defence—may build more
open nests. During nest construction, some species seek out plant
matter from plants with parasite-reducing toxins to improve chick
survival,[227] and feathers are often used for nest insulation.[226]
Some bird species have no nests; the cliff-nesting common guillemot lays
its eggs on bare rock, and male emperor penguins keep eggs between
their body and feet. The absence of nests is especially prevalent in
open habitat ground-nesting species where any addition of nest material
would make the nest more conspicuous. Many ground nesting birds lay a
clutch of eggs that hatch synchronously, with precocial chicks led away
from the nests (nidifugous) by their parents soon after hatching.[228] Nest made of straw with five white eggs and one grey speckled egg Nest of an eastern phoebe that has been parasitised by a brown-headed cowbird Incubation,
which regulates temperature for chick development, usually begins after
the last egg has been laid.[76] In monogamous species incubation duties
are often shared, whereas in polygamous species one parent is wholly
responsible for incubation. Warmth from parents passes to the eggs
through brood patches, areas of bare skin on the abdomen or breast of
the incubating birds. Incubation can be an energetically demanding
process; adult albatrosses, for instance, lose as much as 83 grams (2.9
oz) of body weight per day of incubation.[229] The warmth for the
incubation of the eggs of megapodes comes from the sun, decaying
vegetation or volcanic sources.[230] Incubation periods range from 10
days (in woodpeckers, cuckoos and passerine birds) to over 80 days (in
albatrosses and kiwis).[76] The diversity of
characteristics of birds is great, sometimes even in closely related
species. Several avian characteristics are compared in the table
below.[231][232] Species Adult weight (grams) Incubation (days) Clutches (per year) Clutch size Ruby-throated hummingbird (Archilochus colubris) 3 13 2.0 2 House sparrow (Passer domesticus) 25 11 4.5 5 Greater roadrunner (Geococcyx californianus) 376 20 1.5 4 Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) 2,200 39 1.0 2 Laysan albatross (Diomedea immutabilis) 3,150 64 1.0 1 Magellanic penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus) 4,000 40 1.0 1 Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) 4,800 40 1.0 2 Wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) 6,050 28 1.0 11 Parental care and fledging Main article: Parental care in birds At
the time of their hatching, chicks range in development from helpless
to independent, depending on their species. Helpless chicks are termed
altricial, and tend to be born small, blind, immobile and naked; chicks
that are mobile and feathered upon hatching are termed precocial.
Altricial chicks need help thermoregulating and must be brooded for
longer than precocial chicks. The young of many bird species do not
precisely fit into either the precocial or altricial category, having
some aspects of each and thus fall somewhere on an "altricial-precocial
spectrum".[233] Chicks at neither extreme but favouring one or the other
may be termed semi-precocial[234] or semi-altricial.[235] Looking down on three helpless blind chicks in a nest within the hollow of a dead tree trunk Altricial chicks of a white-breasted woodswallow The
length and nature of parental care varies widely amongst different
orders and species. At one extreme, parental care in megapodes ends at
hatching; the newly hatched chick digs itself out of the nest mound
without parental assistance and can fend for itself immediately.[236] At
the other extreme, many seabirds have extended periods of parental
care, the longest being that of the great frigatebird, whose chicks take
up to six months to fledge and are fed by the parents for up to an
additional 14 months.[237] The chick guard stage describes the period of
breeding during which one of the adult birds is permanently present at
the nest after chicks have hatched. The main purpose of the guard stage
is to aid offspring to thermoregulate and protect them from
predation.[238] Hummingbird perched on edge of tiny nest places food into mouth of one of two chicks A female calliope hummingbird feeding fully grown chicks In
some species, both parents care for nestlings and fledglings; in
others, such care is the responsibility of only one sex. In some
species, other members of the same species—usually close relatives of
the breeding pair, such as offspring from previous broods—will help with
the raising of the young.[239] Such alloparenting is particularly
common among the Corvida, which includes such birds as the true crows,
Australian magpie and fairy-wrens,[240] but has been observed in species
as different as the rifleman and red kite. Among most groups of
animals, male parental care is rare. In birds, however, it is quite
common—more so than in any other vertebrate class.[76] Although
territory and nest site defence, incubation, and chick feeding are often
shared tasks, there is sometimes a division of labour in which one mate
undertakes all or most of a particular duty.[241] The
point at which chicks fledge varies dramatically. The chicks of the
Synthliboramphus murrelets, like the ancient murrelet, leave the nest
the night after they hatch, following their parents out to sea, where
they are raised away from terrestrial predators.[242] Some other
species, such as ducks, move their chicks away from the nest at an early
age. In most species, chicks leave the nest just before, or soon after,
they are able to fly. The amount of parental care after fledging
varies; albatross chicks leave the nest on their own and receive no
further help, while other species continue some supplementary feeding
after fledging.[243] Chicks may also follow their parents during their
first migration.[244] Brood parasites Main article: Brood parasite Small brown bird places an insect in the bill of much larger grey bird in nest Reed warbler raising a common cuckoo, a brood parasite Brood
parasitism, in which an egg-layer leaves her eggs with another
individual's brood, is more common among birds than any other type of
organism.[245] After a parasitic bird lays her eggs in another bird's
nest, they are often accepted and raised by the host at the expense of
the host's own brood. Brood parasites may be either obligate brood
parasites, which must lay their eggs in the nests of other species
because they are incapable of raising their own young, or non-obligate
brood parasites, which sometimes lay eggs in the nests of conspecifics
to increase their reproductive output even though they could have raised
their own young.[246] One hundred bird species, including honeyguides,
icterids, and ducks, are obligate parasites, though the most famous are
the cuckoos.[245] Some brood parasites are adapted to hatch before their
host's young, which allows them to destroy the host's eggs by pushing
them out of the nest or to kill the host's chicks; this ensures that all
food brought to the nest will be fed to the parasitic chicks.[247] Sexual selection The peacock tail in flight, the classic example of a Fisherian runaway Main article: Sexual selection in birds Birds
have evolved a variety of mating behaviours, with the peacock tail
being perhaps the most famous example of sexual selection and the
Fisherian runaway. Commonly occurring sexual dimorphisms such as size
and colour differences are energetically costly attributes that signal
competitive breeding situations.[248] Many types of avian sexual
selection have been identified; intersexual selection, also known as
female choice; and intrasexual competition, where individuals of the
more abundant sex compete with each other for the privilege to mate.
Sexually selected traits often evolve to become more pronounced in
competitive breeding situations until the trait begins to limit the
individual's fitness. Conflicts between an individual fitness and
signalling adaptations ensure that sexually selected ornaments such as
plumage colouration and courtship behaviour are "honest" traits. Signals
must be costly to ensure that only good-quality individuals can present
these exaggerated sexual ornaments and behaviours.[249] Inbreeding depression Main article: Inbreeding depression Inbreeding
causes early death (inbreeding depression) in the zebra finch
Taeniopygia guttata.[250] Embryo survival (that is, hatching success of
fertile eggs) was significantly lower for sib-sib mating pairs than for
unrelated pairs.[citation needed] Darwin's
finch Geospiza scandens experiences inbreeding depression (reduced
survival of offspring) and the magnitude of this effect is influenced by
environmental conditions such as low food availability.[251] Inbreeding avoidance Main article: Inbreeding avoidance Incestuous
matings by the purple-crowned fairy wren Malurus coronatus result in
severe fitness costs due to inbreeding depression (greater than 30%
reduction in hatchability of eggs).[252] Females paired with related
males may undertake extra pair matings (see Promiscuity#Other animals
for 90% frequency in avian species) that can reduce the negative effects
of inbreeding. However, there are ecological and demographic
constraints on extra pair matings. Nevertheless, 43% of broods produced
by incestuously paired females contained extra pair young.[252] Inbreeding
depression occurs in the great tit (Parus major) when the offspring
produced as a result of a mating between close relatives show reduced
fitness. In natural populations of Parus major, inbreeding is avoided by
dispersal of individuals from their birthplace, which reduces the
chance of mating with a close relative.[253] Southern
pied babblers Turdoides bicolor appear to avoid inbreeding in two ways.
The first is through dispersal, and the second is by avoiding familiar
group members as mates.[254] Cooperative
breeding in birds typically occurs when offspring, usually males, delay
dispersal from their natal group in order to remain with the family to
help rear younger kin.[255] Female offspring rarely stay at home,
dispersing over distances that allow them to breed independently, or to
join unrelated groups. In general, inbreeding is avoided because it
leads to a reduction in progeny fitness (inbreeding depression) due
largely to the homozygous expression of deleterious recessive
alleles.[256] Cross-fertilisation between unrelated individuals
ordinarily leads to the masking of deleterious recessive alleles in
progeny.[257][258] Ecology Gran Canaria blue chaffinch, an example of a bird highly specialised in its habitat, in this case in the Canarian pine forests Birds
occupy a wide range of ecological positions.[192] While some birds are
generalists, others are highly specialised in their habitat or food
requirements. Even within a single habitat, such as a forest, the niches
occupied by different species of birds vary, with some species feeding
in the forest canopy, others beneath the canopy, and still others on the
forest floor. Forest birds may be insectivores, frugivores, or
nectarivores. Aquatic birds generally feed by fishing, plant eating, and
piracy or kleptoparasitism. Many grassland birds are granivores. Birds
of prey specialise in hunting mammals or other birds, while vultures are
specialised scavengers. Birds are also preyed upon by a range of
mammals including a few avivorous bats.[259] A wide range of endo- and
ectoparasites depend on birds and some parasites that are transmitted
from parent to young have co-evolved and show host-specificity.[260] Some
nectar-feeding birds are important pollinators, and many frugivores
play a key role in seed dispersal.[261] Plants and pollinating birds
often coevolve,[262] and in some cases a flower's primary pollinator is
the only species capable of reaching its nectar.[263] Birds
are often important to island ecology. Birds have frequently reached
islands that mammals have not; on those islands, birds may fulfil
ecological roles typically played by larger animals. For example, in New
Zealand nine species of moa were important browsers, as are the kererū
and kokako today.[261] Today the plants of New Zealand retain the
defensive adaptations evolved to protect them from the extinct moa.[264] Many
birds act as ecosystem engineers through the construction of nests,
which provide important microhabitats and food for hundreds of species
of invertebrates.[265][266] Nesting seabirds may affect the ecology of
islands and surrounding seas, principally through the concentration of
large quantities of guano, which may enrich the local soil[267] and the
surrounding seas.[268] A wide variety of avian
ecology field methods, including counts, nest monitoring, and capturing
and marking, are used for researching avian ecology.[269] Relationship with humans Main article: Human uses of birds Two rows of cages in a dark barn with many white chickens in each cage Industrial farming of chickens Since
birds are highly visible and common animals, humans have had a
relationship with them since the dawn of man.[270] Sometimes, these
relationships are mutualistic, like the cooperative honey-gathering
among honeyguides and African peoples such as the Borana.[271] Other
times, they may be commensal, as when species such as the house
sparrow[272] have benefited from human activities. Several bird species
have become commercially significant agricultural pests,[273] and some
pose an aviation hazard.[274] Human activities can also be detrimental,
and have threatened numerous bird species with extinction (hunting,
avian lead poisoning, pesticides, roadkill, wind turbine kills[275] and
predation by pet cats and dogs are common causes of death for
birds).[276] Birds can act as vectors for
spreading diseases such as psittacosis, salmonellosis,
campylobacteriosis, mycobacteriosis (avian tuberculosis), avian
influenza (bird flu), giardiasis, and cryptosporidiosis over long
distances. Some of these are zoonotic diseases that can also be
transmitted to humans.[277] Economic importance See also: Pet § Birds Illustration of fisherman on raft with pole for punting and numerous black birds on raft The use of cormorants by Asian fishermen is in steep decline but survives in some areas as a tourist attraction. Domesticated
birds raised for meat and eggs, called poultry, are the largest source
of animal protein eaten by humans; in 2003, 76 million tons of poultry
and 61 million tons of eggs were produced worldwide.[278] Chickens
account for much of human poultry consumption, though domesticated
turkeys, ducks, and geese are also relatively common.[279] Many species
of birds are also hunted for meat. Bird hunting is primarily a
recreational activity except in extremely undeveloped areas. The most
important birds hunted in North and South America are waterfowl; other
widely hunted birds include pheasants, wild turkeys, quail, doves,
partridge, grouse, snipe, and woodcock.[citation needed] Muttonbirding
is also popular in Australia and New Zealand.[280] Although some
hunting, such as that of muttonbirds, may be sustainable, hunting has
led to the extinction or endangerment of dozens of species.[281] Other
commercially valuable products from birds include feathers (especially
the down of geese and ducks), which are used as insulation in clothing
and bedding, and seabird faeces (guano), which is a valuable source of
phosphorus and nitrogen. The War of the Pacific, sometimes called the
Guano War, was fought in part over the control of guano deposits.[282] Birds
have been domesticated by humans both as pets and for practical
purposes. Colourful birds, such as parrots and mynas, are bred in
captivity or kept as pets, a practice that has led to the illegal
trafficking of some endangered species.[283] Falcons and cormorants have
long been used for hunting and fishing, respectively. Messenger
pigeons, used since at least 1 AD, remained important as recently as
World War II. Today, such activities are more common either as hobbies,
for entertainment and tourism,[284] Amateur
bird enthusiasts (called birdwatchers, twitchers or, more commonly,
birders) number in the millions.[285] Many homeowners erect bird feeders
near their homes to attract various species. Bird feeding has grown
into a multimillion-dollar industry; for example, an estimated 75% of
households in Britain provide food for birds at some point during the
winter.[286] In religion and mythology Woodcut of three long-legged and long-necked birds The 3 of Birds by the Master of the Playing Cards, 15th-century Germany Birds
play prominent and diverse roles in religion and mythology. In
religion, birds may serve as either messengers or priests and leaders
for a deity, such as in the Cult of Makemake, in which the Tangata manu
of Easter Island served as chiefs[287] or as attendants, as in the case
of Hugin and Munin, the two common ravens who whispered news into the
ears of the Norse god Odin. In several civilisations of ancient Italy,
particularly Etruscan and Roman religion, priests were involved in
augury, or interpreting the words of birds while the "auspex" (from
which the word "auspicious" is derived) watched their activities to
foretell events.[288] They may also serve as
religious symbols, as when Jonah (Hebrew: יונה, dove) embodied the
fright, passivity, mourning, and beauty traditionally associated with
doves.[289] Birds have themselves been deified, as in the case of the
common peacock, which is perceived as Mother Earth by the people of
southern India.[290] In the ancient world, doves were used as symbols of
the Mesopotamian goddess Inanna (later known as Ishtar),[291][292] the
Canaanite mother goddess Asherah,[291][292][293] and the Greek goddess
Aphrodite.[291][292][294][295][296] In ancient Greece, Athena, the
goddess of wisdom and patron deity of the city of Athens, had a little
owl as her symbol.[297][298][299] In religious images preserved from the
Inca and Tiwanaku empires, birds are depicted in the process of
transgressing boundaries between earthly and underground spiritual
realms.[300] Indigenous peoples of the central Andes maintain legends of
birds passing to and from metaphysical worlds.[300] In culture and folklore Painted tiles with design of birds from Qajar dynasty Birds
have featured in culture and art since prehistoric times, when they
were represented in early cave painting[301] and carvings.[302] Some
birds have been perceived as monsters, including the mythological Roc
and the Māori's legendary Pouākai, a giant bird capable of snatching
humans.[303] Birds were later used as symbols of power, as in the
magnificent Peacock Throne of the Mughal and Persian emperors.[304] With
the advent of scientific interest in birds, many paintings of birds
were commissioned for books.[citation needed] Among
the most famous of these bird artists was John James Audubon, whose
paintings of North American birds were a great commercial success in
Europe and who later lent his name to the National Audubon Society.[305]
Birds are also important figures in poetry; for example, Homer
incorporated nightingales into his Odyssey, and Catullus used a sparrow
as an erotic symbol in his Catullus 2.[306] The relationship between an
albatross and a sailor is the central theme of Samuel Taylor Coleridge's
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, which led to the use of the term as a
metaphor for a 'burden'.[307] Other English metaphors derive from birds;
vulture funds and vulture investors, for instance, take their name from
the scavenging vulture.[308] Aircraft, particularly military aircraft,
are frequently named after birds. The predatory nature of raptors make
them popular choices for fighter aircraft such as the F-16 Fighting
Falcon and the Harrier Jump Jet, while the names of seabirds may be
chosen for aircraft primarily used by naval forces such as the HU-16
Albatross and the V-22 Osprey.[309] The flag of Dominica prominently features the Sisserou Parrot, its national bird. Perceptions
of bird species vary across cultures. Owls are associated with bad
luck, witchcraft, and death in parts of Africa,[310] but are regarded as
wise across much of Europe.[311] Hoopoes were considered sacred in
Ancient Egypt and symbols of virtue in Persia, but were thought of as
thieves across much of Europe and harbingers of war in Scandinavia.[312]
In heraldry, birds, especially eagles, often appear in coats of
arms[313] In vexillology, birds are a popular choice on flags. Birds
feature in the flag designs of 17 countries and numerous subnational
entities and territories.[314] Birds are used by nations to symbolize a
country's identity and heritage, with 91 countries officially
recognizing a national bird. Birds of prey are highly represented,
though some nations have chosen other species of birds with parrots
being popular among smaller, tropical nations.[315] In music Main article: Birds in music In
music, birdsong has influenced composers and musicians in several ways:
they can be inspired by birdsong; they can intentionally imitate bird
song in a composition, as Vivaldi, Messiaen, and Beethoven did, along
with many later composers; they can incorporate recordings of birds into
their works, as Ottorino Respighi first did; or like Beatrice Harrison
and David Rothenberg, they can duet with birds.[316][317][318][319] Conservation Main article: Bird conservation See also: Late Quaternary prehistoric birds, List of extinct birds, and Raptor conservation Large black bird with featherless head and hooked bill The California condor once numbered only 22 birds, but conservation measures have raised that to over 500 today. Although
human activities have allowed the expansion of a few species, such as
the barn swallow and European starling, they have caused population
decreases or extinction in many other species. Over a hundred bird
species have gone extinct in historical times,[320] although the most
dramatic human-caused avian extinctions, eradicating an estimated
750–1800 species, occurred during the human colonisation of Melanesian,
Polynesian, and Micronesian islands.[321] Many bird populations are
declining worldwide, with 1,227 species listed as threatened by BirdLife
International and the IUCN in 2009.[322][323] The
most commonly cited human threat to birds is habitat loss.[324] Other
threats include overhunting, accidental mortality due to collisions with
buildings or vehicles, long-line fishing bycatch,[325] pollution
(including oil spills and pesticide use),[326] competition and predation
from nonnative invasive species,[327] and climate change. Governments
and conservation groups work to protect birds, either by passing laws
that preserve and restore bird habitat or by establishing captive
populations for reintroductions. Such projects have produced some
successes; one study estimated that conservation efforts saved 16
species of bird that would otherwise have gone extinct between 1994 and
2004, including the California condor and Norfolk parakeet.[328] See also Animal track Avian sleep Bat Climate change and birds Glossary of bird terms List of individual birds Ornithology Paleocene dinosaurs References Field,
Daniel J.; Benito, Juan; Chen, Albert; Jagt, John W. M.; Ksepka, Daniel
T. (March 2020). "Late Cretaceous neornithine from Europe illuminates
the origins of crown birds". Nature. 579 (7799): 397–401.
Bibcode:2020Natur.579..397F. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2096-0. ISSN
0028-0836. PMID 32188952. S2CID 212937591. De Pietri, Vanesa
L.; Scofield, R. Paul; Zelenkov, Nikita; Boles, Walter E.; Worthy,
Trevor H. (February 2016). "The unexpected survival of an ancient
lineage of anseriform birds into the Neogene of Australia: the youngest
record of Presbyornithidae". Royal Society Open Science. 3 (2): 150635.
Bibcode:2016RSOS....350635D. doi:10.1098/rsos.150635. PMC 4785986. PMID
26998335. Yonezawa, T.; et al. (2017). "Phylogenomics and
Morphology of Extinct Paleognaths Reveal the Origin and Evolution of the
Ratites". Current Biology. 27 (1): 68–77.
doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016.10.029. PMID 27989673. Kuhl, H.;
Frankl-Vilches, C.; Bakker, A.; Mayr, G.; Nikolaus, G.; Boerno, S. T.;
Klages, S.; Timmermann, B.; Gahr, M. (2020). "An unbiased molecular
approach using 3'UTRs resolves the avian family-level tree of life".
Molecular Biology and Evolution. 38 (1): 108–127.
doi:10.1093/molbev/msaa191. hdl:21.11116/0000-0007-B72A-C. PMC 7783168.
PMID 32781465. Crouch, N. M. A. (2022). "Interpreting the
fossil record and the origination of birds". bioRxiv.
doi:10.1101/2022.05.19.492716. S2CID 249047881. Brands,
Sheila (14 August 2008). "Systema Naturae 2000 / Classification, Class
Aves". Project: The Taxonomicon. Retrieved 11 June 2012. del
Hoyo, Josep; Andy Elliott; Jordi Sargatal (1992). Handbook of Birds of
the World, Volume 1: Ostrich to Ducks. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. ISBN
84-87334-10-5. Linnaeus, Carolus (1758). Systema naturae per
regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum
characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima,
reformata (in Latin). Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii). p. 824. Livezey,
Bradley C.; Zusi, RL (January 2007). "Higher-order phylogeny of modern
birds (Theropoda, Aves: Neornithes) based on comparative anatomy. II.
Analysis and discussion". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 149
(1): 1–95. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00293.x. PMC 2517308. PMID
18784798. Padian, Kevin; Philip J. Currie (1997). "Bird
Origins". Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs. San Diego: Academic Press. pp.
41–96. ISBN 0-12-226810-5. Gauthier, Jacques (1986).
"Saurischian monophyly and the origin of birds". In Padian, Kevin (ed.).
The Origin of Birds and the Evolution of Flight. Memoirs of the
California Academy of Science. Vol. 8. San Francisco, CA: Published by
California Academy of Sciences. pp. 1–55. ISBN 0-940228-14-9. Gauthier,
J.; de Queiroz, K. (2001). "Feathered dinosaurs, flying dinosaurs,
crown dinosaurs, and the name Aves". In Gauthier, J. A.; Gall, L. F.
(eds.). New perspectives on the origin and early evolution of birds:
proceedings of the International Symposium in Honor of John H. Ostrom.
New Haven, CT: Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University. pp.
7–41. Godefroit, Pascal; Andrea Cau; Hu Dong-Yu; François
Escuillié; Wu Wenhao; Gareth Dyke (2013). "A Jurassic avialan dinosaur
from China resolves the early phylogenetic history of birds". Nature.
498 (7454): 359–362. Bibcode:2013Natur.498..359G.
doi:10.1038/nature12168. PMID 23719374. S2CID 4364892. Cau,
Andrea (2018). "The assembly of the avian body plan: a 160-million-year
long process" (PDF). Bollettino della Società Paleontologica Italiana.
Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Weishampel,
David B.; Dodson, Peter; Osmólska, Halszka, eds. (2004). The Dinosauria
(Second ed.). University of California Press. pp. 861 pp. Senter,
P. (2007). "A new look at the phylogeny of Coelurosauria (Dinosauria:
Theropoda)". Journal of Systematic Palaeontology. 5 (4): 429–463.
doi:10.1017/S1477201907002143. S2CID 83726237. Maryańska,
Teresa; Osmólska, Halszka; Wolsan, Mieczysław (2002). "Avialan status
for Oviraptorosauria". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. S2CID 55462557. Gauthier,
J. (1986). "Saurischian monophyly and the origin of birds". In Padian,
K. (ed.). The origin of birds and the evolution of flight. San
Francisco, California: Mem. Calif. Acad. Sci. pp. 1–55. Lee,
Michael S. Y.; Spencer, Patrick S. (1 January 1997). "CHAPTER 3 –
Crown-Clades, Key Characters and Taxonomic Stability: When Is an Amniote
not and Amniote?". In Sumida, Stuart S.; Martin, Karen L. M. (eds.).
Amniote Origins. Academic Press. pp. 61–84. ISBN 978-0-12-676460-4.
Retrieved 14 May 2020. Cau, Andrea; Brougham, Tom; Naish,
Darren (2015). "The phylogenetic affinities of the bizarre Late
Cretaceous Romanian theropod Balaur bondoc(Dinosauria, Maniraptora):
Dromaeosaurid or flightless bird?". PeerJ. 3: e1032.
doi:10.7717/peerj.1032. PMC 4476167. PMID 26157616. Plotnick,
Roy E.; Theodor, Jessica M.; Holtz, Thomas R. (24 September 2015).
"Jurassic Pork: What Could a Jewish Time Traveler Eat?". Evolution:
Education and Outreach. 8 (1): 17. doi:10.1186/s12052-015-0047-2. ISSN
1936-6434. S2CID 16195453. Prum, Richard O. (19 December
2008). "Who's Your Daddy?". Science. 322 (5909): 1799–1800.
doi:10.1126/science.1168808. PMID 19095929. S2CID 206517571. Paul,
Gregory S. (2002). "Looking for the True Bird Ancestor". Dinosaurs of
the Air: The Evolution and Loss of Flight in Dinosaurs and Birds.
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 171–224. ISBN
0-8018-6763-0. Norell, Mark; Mick Ellison (2005). Unearthing
the Dragon: The Great Feathered Dinosaur Discovery. New York: Pi Press.
ISBN 0-13-186266-9. Borenstein, Seth (31 July 2014). "Study
traces dinosaur evolution into early birds". Associated Press. Archived
from the original on 8 August 2014. Retrieved 3 August 2014. Lee,
Michael S. Y.; Cau, Andrea; Naish, Darren; Dyke, Gareth J. (1 August
2014). "Sustained miniaturization and anatomical innovation in the
dinosaurian ancestors of birds". Science. 345 (6196): 562–566.
Bibcode:2014Sci...345..562L. doi:10.1126/science.1252243. PMID 25082702.
S2CID 37866029. Li, Q.; Gao, K.-Q.; Vinther, J.; Shawkey, M.
D.; Clarke, J. A.; d'Alba, L.; Meng, Q.; Briggs, D. E. G. & Prum,
R. O. (2010). "Plumage color patterns of an extinct dinosaur" (PDF).
Science. 327 (5971): 1369–1372. Bibcode:2010Sci...327.1369L.
doi:10.1126/science.1186290. PMID 20133521. S2CID 206525132. Archived
(PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Xing Xu; Hailu
You; Kai Du; Fenglu Han (28 July 2011). "An Archaeopteryx-like theropod
from China and the origin of Avialae". Nature. 475 (7357): 465–470.
doi:10.1038/nature10288. PMID 21796204. S2CID 205225790. Turner,
Alan H.; Pol, D.; Clarke, J. A.; Erickson, G. M.; Norell, M. A. (7
September 2007). "A basal dromaeosaurid and size evolution preceding
avian flight" (PDF). Science. 317 (5843): 1378–1381.
Bibcode:2007Sci...317.1378T. doi:10.1126/science.1144066. PMID 17823350.
S2CID 2519726. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Xu,
X.; Zhou, Z.; Wang, X.; Kuang, X.; Zhang, F.; Du, X. (23 January 2003).
"Four-winged dinosaurs from China" (PDF). Nature. 421 (6921): 335–340.
Bibcode:2003Natur.421..335X. doi:10.1038/nature01342. PMID 12540892.
S2CID 1160118. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 June 2020. Luiggi,
Christina (July 2011). "On the Origin of Birds". The Scientist.
Archived from the original on 16 June 2012. Retrieved 11 June 2012. Mayr,
G.; Pohl, B.; Hartman, S.; Peters, D. S. (January 2007). "The tenth
skeletal specimen of Archaeopteryx". Zoological Journal of the Linnean
Society. 149 (1): 97–116. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00245.x. Ivanov, M.; Hrdlickova, S.; Gregorova, R. (2001). The Complete Encyclopedia of Fossils. Netherlands: Rebo Publishers. p. 312. Benton,
Michael J.; Dhouailly, Danielle; Jiang, Baoyu; McNamara, Maria (1
September 2019). "The Early Origin of Feathers". Trends in Ecology &
Evolution. 34 (9): 856–869. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2019.04.018. ISSN
0169-5347. PMID 31164250. S2CID 174811556. Zheng, X.; Zhou,
Z.; Wang, X.; Zhang, F.; Zhang, X.; Wang, Y.; Wei, G.; Wang, S.; Xu, X.
(15 March 2013). "Hind Wings in Basal Birds and the Evolution of Leg
Feathers". Science. 339 (6125): 1309–1312. Bibcode:2013Sci...339.1309Z.
CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1031.5732. doi:10.1126/science.1228753. PMID 23493711.
S2CID 206544531. Chiappe, Luis M. (2007). Glorified
Dinosaurs: The Origin and Early Evolution of Birds. Sydney: University
of New South Wales Press. ISBN 978-0-86840-413-4. Pickrell,
John (22 March 2018). "Early birds may have been too hefty to sit on
their eggs". Nature. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-03447-3. Agency
France-Presse (April 2011). "Birds survived dino extinction with keen
senses". Cosmos Magazine. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015.
Retrieved 11 June 2012. Wang, M.; Zheng, X.; O'Connor, J. K.;
Lloyd, G. T.; Wang, X.; Wang, Y.; Zhang, X.; Zhou, Z. (2015). "The
oldest record of ornithuromorpha from the early cretaceous of China".
Nature Communications. 6 (6987): 6987. Bibcode:2015NatCo...6.6987W.
doi:10.1038/ncomms7987. PMC 5426517. PMID 25942493. Brusatte,
S.L.; O'Connor, J.K.; Jarvis, J.D. (2015). "The Origin and
Diversification of Birds". Current Biology. 25 (19): R888–R898.
doi:10.1016/j.cub.2015.08.003. PMID 26439352. S2CID 3099017. Clarke,
Julia A. (2004). "Morphology, Phylogenetic Taxonomy, and Systematics of
Ichthyornis and Apatornis (Avialae: Ornithurae)" (PDF). Bulletin of the
American Museum of Natural History. 286: 1–179.
doi:10.1206/0003-0090(2004)286<0001:MPTASO>2.0.CO;2. hdl:2246/454.
S2CID 84035285. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2009.
Retrieved 14 September 2007. Louchart, A.; Viriot, L. (2011).
"From snout to beak: the loss of teeth in birds". Trends in Ecology
& Evolution. 26 (12): 663–673. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2011.09.004. PMID
21978465. Archived from the original on 28 July 2014. Clarke,
J. A.; Zhou, Z.; Zhang, F. (March 2006). "Insight into the evolution of
avian flight from a new clade of Early Cretaceous ornithurines from
China and the morphology of Yixianornis grabaui". Journal of Anatomy.
208 (3): 287–308. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00534.x. PMC 2100246.
PMID 16533313. Felice, Ryan N.; Goswami, Anjali (2018).
"Developmental origins of mosaic evolution in the avian cranium".
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of
America. 115 (3): 555–60. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115..555F.
doi:10.1073/pnas.1716437115. PMC 5776993. PMID 29279399. Lee,
Michael S. Y.; Cau, Andrea; Naish, Darren; Dyke, Gareth J. (May 2014).
"Morphological Clocks in Paleontology, and a Mid-Cretaceous Origin of
Crown Aves" (PDF). Systematic Biology. Oxford Journals. 63 (1): 442–449.
doi:10.1093/sysbio/syt110. PMID 24449041. Prum, R. O.; et
al. (2015). "A comprehensive phylogeny of birds (Aves) using targeted
next-generation DNA sequencing". Nature. 526 (7574): 569–573.
Bibcode:2015Natur.526..569P. doi:10.1038/nature15697. PMID 26444237.
S2CID 205246158. Ericson, Per G.P.; et al. (2006).
"Diversification of Neoaves: integration of molecular sequence data and
fossils" (PDF). Biology Letters. 2 (4): 543–547.
doi:10.1098/rsbl.2006.0523. PMC 1834003. PMID 17148284. Archived from
the original (PDF) on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 4 July 2008. Clarke,
Julia A.; Tambussi, Claudia P.; Noriega, Jorge I.; Erickson, Gregory
M.; Ketcham, Richard A. (January 2005). "Definitive fossil evidence for
the extant avian radiation in the Cretaceous" (PDF). Nature. 433 (7023):
305–308. Bibcode:2005Natur.433..305C. doi:10.1038/nature03150. PMID
15662422. S2CID 4354309. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 June
2020. Clarke, J. A. (2004). "Morphology, phylogenetic
taxonomy, and systematics of Ichthyornis and Apatornis (Avialae:
Ornithurae)". Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 286:
1–179. doi:10.1206/0003-0090(2004)286<0001:mptaso>2.0.co;2.
hdl:2246/454. S2CID 84035285. Archived from the original on 19 June
2015. Retrieved 22 March 2015. Jarvis, E. D.; et al. (2014).
"Whole-genome analyses resolve early branches in the tree of life of
modern birds". Science. 346 (6215): 1320–1331.
Bibcode:2014Sci...346.1320J. doi:10.1126/science.1253451. PMC 4405904.
PMID 25504713. Claramunt, S.; Cracraft, J. (2015). "A new
time tree reveals Earth history's imprint on the evolution of modern
birds". Sci Adv. 1 (11): e1501005. Bibcode:2015SciA....1E1005C.
doi:10.1126/sciadv.1501005. PMC 4730849. PMID 26824065. Mitchell,
K. J.; Llamas, B.; Soubrier, J.; Rawlence, N. J.; Worthy, T. H.; Wood,
J.; Lee, M. S. Y.; Cooper, A. (23 May 2014). "Ancient DNA reveals
elephant birds and kiwi are sister taxa and clarifies ratite bird
evolution" (PDF). Science. 344 (6186): 898–900.
Bibcode:2014Sci...344..898M. doi:10.1126/science.1251981.
hdl:2328/35953. PMID 24855267. S2CID 206555952. Ritchison, Gary. "Bird biogeography". Avian Biology. Eastern Kentucky University. Retrieved 10 April 2008. Cracraft,
J. (2013). "Avian Higher-level Relationships and Classification:
Nonpasseriforms". In Dickinson, E. C.; Remsen, J. V. (eds.). The Howard
and Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World. Vol. 1 (4th
ed.). Aves Press, Eastbourne, U.K. pp. xxi–xli. "Welcome". IOC World Bird List 9.2. doi:10.14344/ioc.ml.9.2. "October 2022 | Clements Checklist". www.birds.cornell.edu. Retrieved 6 January 2023. Braun, E. L.; Kimball, R. T. (2021). "Data types and the phylogeny of Neoaves". Birds. 2 (1): 1–22. doi:10.3390/birds2010001. Boyd,
John (2007). "NEORNITHES: 46 Orders" (PDF). John Boyd's website.
Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 30
December 2017. Sibley, Charles; Jon Edward Ahlquist (1990).
Phylogeny and classification of birds. New Haven: Yale University Press.
ISBN 0-300-04085-7. Mayr, Ernst; Short, Lester L. (1970).
Species Taxa of North American Birds: A Contribution to Comparative
Systematics. Publications of the Nuttall Ornithological Club, no. 9.
Cambridge, MA: Nuttall Ornithological Club. OCLC 517185. Holmes,
Bob (10 February 2022). "Learning about birds from their genomes".
Knowable Magazine. doi:10.1146/knowable-021022-1. Retrieved 11 February
2022. Bravo, Gustavo A.; Schmitt, C. Jonathan; Edwards, Scott
V. (3 November 2021). "What Have We Learned from the First 500 Avian
Genomes?". Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 52 (1):
611–639. doi:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-012121-085928. ISSN 1543-592X.
S2CID 239655248. Feng, Shaohong; et al. (2020). "Dense
sampling of bird diversity increases power of comparative genomics".
Nature. 587 (7833): 252–257. Bibcode:2020Natur.587..252F.
doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2873-9. ISSN 0028-0836. PMC 7759463. PMID
33177665. Newton, Ian (2003). The Speciation and Biogeography of Birds. Amsterdam: Academic Press. p. 463. ISBN 0-12-517375-X. Brooke, Michael (2004). Albatrosses And Petrels Across The World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-850125-0. Weir,
Jason T.; Schluter, D (2007). "The Latitudinal Gradient in Recent
Speciation and Extinction Rates of Birds and Mammals". Science. 315
(5818): 1574–1576. Bibcode:2007Sci...315.1574W.
doi:10.1126/science.1135590. PMID 17363673. S2CID 46640620. Schreiber, Elizabeth Anne; Joanna Burger (2001). Biology of Marine Birds. Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-9882-7. Sato,
Katsufumi; Naito, Y.; Kato, A.; Niizuma, Y.; Watanuki, Y.; Charrassin,
J. B.; Bost, C. A.; Handrich, Y.; Le Maho, Y. (1 May 2002). "Buoyancy
and maximal diving depth in penguins: do they control inhaling air
volume?". Journal of Experimental Biology. 205 (9): 1189–1197.
doi:10.1242/jeb.205.9.1189. PMID 11948196. Hill, David; Peter
Robertson (1988). The Pheasant: Ecology, Management, and Conservation.
Oxford: BSP Professional. ISBN 0-632-02011-3. Spreyer, Mark
F.; Enrique H. Bucher (1998). "Monk Parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus)". The
Birds of North America. Cornell Lab of Ornithology.
doi:10.2173/bna.322. Retrieved 13 December 2015. Arendt,
Wayne J. (1 January 1988). "Range Expansion of the Cattle Egret,
(Bubulcus ibis) in the Greater Caribbean Basin". Colonial Waterbirds. 11
(2): 252–262. doi:10.2307/1521007. JSTOR 1521007. Bierregaard,
R. O. (1994). "Yellow-headed Caracara". In Josep del Hoyo; Andrew
Elliott; Jordi Sargatal (eds.). Handbook of the Birds of the World.
Volume 2; New World Vultures to Guineafowl. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions.
ISBN 84-87334-15-6. Juniper, Tony; Mike Parr (1998). Parrots: A Guide to the Parrots of the World. London: Christopher Helm. ISBN 0-7136-6933-0. Weijden,
Wouter van der; Terwan, Paul; Guldemond, Adriaan, eds. (2010). Farmland
Birds across the World. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. p. 4. ISBN
9788496553637. Ehrlich, Paul R.; David S. Dobkin; Darryl
Wheye (1988). "Adaptations for Flight". Birds of Stanford. Stanford
University. Retrieved 13 December 2007. Based on The Birder's Handbook
(Paul Ehrlich, David Dobkin, and Darryl Wheye. 1988. Simon and Schuster,
New York.) Gill, Frank (1995). Ornithology. New York: WH Freeman and Co. ISBN 0-7167-2415-4. Noll, Paul. "The Avian Skeleton". paulnoll.com. Retrieved 13 December 2007. "Skeleton of a typical bird". Fernbank Science Center's Ornithology Web. Retrieved 13 December 2007. "The Surprising Closest Relative of the Huge Elephant Birds". Science & Innovation. 22 May 2014. Retrieved 6 March 2019. Ehrlich,
Paul R.; David S. Dobkin; Darryl Wheye (1988). "Drinking". Birds of
Stanford. Stanford University. Retrieved 13 December 2007. Tsahar,
Ella; Martínez Del Rio, C; Izhaki, I; Arad, Z (2005). "Can birds be
ammonotelic? Nitrogen balance and excretion in two frugivores". Journal
of Experimental Biology. 208 (6): 1025–1034. doi:10.1242/jeb.01495. PMID
15767304. S2CID 18540594. Skadhauge, E; Erlwanger, KH;
Ruziwa, SD; Dantzer, V; Elbrønd, VS; Chamunorwa, JP (2003). "Does the
ostrich (Struthio camelus) coprodeum have the electrophysiological
properties and microstructure of other birds?". Comparative Biochemistry
and Physiology A. 134 (4): 749–755. doi:10.1016/S1095-6433(03)00006-0.
PMID 12814783. Preest, Marion R.; Beuchat, Carol A. (April
1997). "Ammonia excretion by hummingbirds". Nature. 386 (6625): 561–562.
Bibcode:1997Natur.386..561P. doi:10.1038/386561a0. S2CID 4372695. Mora,
J.; Martuscelli, J; Ortiz Pineda, J; Soberon, G (1965). "The regulation
of urea-biosynthesis enzymes in vertebrates". Biochemical Journal. 96
(1): 28–35. doi:10.1042/bj0960028. PMC 1206904. PMID 14343146. Packard,
Gary C. (1966). "The Influence of Ambient Temperature and Aridity on
Modes of Reproduction and Excretion of Amniote Vertebrates". The
American Naturalist. 100 (916): 667–682. doi:10.1086/282459. JSTOR
2459303. S2CID 85424175. Balgooyen, Thomas G. (1 October
1971). "Pellet Regurgitation by Captive Sparrow Hawks (Falco
sparverius)" (PDF). Condor. 73 (3): 382–385. doi:10.2307/1365774. JSTOR
1365774. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 February 2014. "What Are Fecal Sacs? Bird Diapers, Basically". Audubon. 7 August 2018. Retrieved 17 January 2021. Yong,
Ed (6 June 2013). "Phenomena: Not Exactly Rocket Science How Chickens
Lost Their Penises (And Ducks Kept Theirs)".
Phenomena.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved 3 October 2013. "Ornithology,
3rd Edition – Waterfowl: Order Anseriformes". Archived from the
original on 22 June 2015. Retrieved 3 October 2013. McCracken,
KG (2000). "The 20-cm Spiny Penis of the Argentine Lake Duck (Oxyura
vittata)" (PDF). The Auk. 117 (3): 820–825.
doi:10.1642/0004-8038(2000)117[0820:TCSPOT]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 5717257.
Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Marcus, Adam (2011). "Ostrich penis clears up evolutionary mystery". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2011.9600. S2CID 84524738. Sasanami,
Tomohiro; Matsuzaki, Mei; Mizushima, Shusei; Hiyama, Gen (2013). "Sperm
Storage in the Female Reproductive Tract in Birds". Journal of
Reproduction and Development. 59 (4): 334–338. doi:10.1262/jrd.2013-038.
ISSN 0916-8818. PMC 3944358. PMID 23965601. Birkhead, T. R.;
Møller, P. (1993). "Sexual selection and the temporal separation of
reproductive events: sperm storage data from reptiles, birds and
mammals". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 50 (4): 295–311.
doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1993.tb00933.x. Guioli, Silvana;
Nandi, Sunil; Zhao, Debiao; Burgess-Shannon, Jessica; Lovell-Badge,
Robin; Clinton, Michael (2014). "Gonadal Asymmetry and Sex Determination
in Birds". Sexual Development. 8 (5): 227–242. doi:10.1159/000358406.
ISSN 1661-5433. PMID 24577119. S2CID 3035039. Dawson,
Alistair (April 2015). "Annual gonadal cycles in birds: Modeling the
effects of photoperiod on seasonal changes in GnRH-1 secretion".
Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology. 37: 52–64.
doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2014.08.004. PMID 25194876. S2CID 13704885. Farner,
Donald S.; Follett, Brian K.; King, James R.; Morton, Msrtin L.
(February 1966). "A Quantitative Examination of Ovarian Growth in the
White-Crowned Sparrow". The Biological Bulletin. 130 (1): 67–75.
doi:10.2307/1539953. JSTOR 1539953. PMID 5948479. Ramachandran,
R.; McDaniel, C. D. (2018). "Parthenogenesis in birds: a review".
Reproduction. 155 (6): R245–R257. doi:10.1530/REP-17-0728. ISSN
1470-1626. PMID 29559496. S2CID 4017618. Kobayashi, Kazuya;
Kitano, Takeshi; Iwao, Yasuhiro; Kondo, Mariko (1 June 2018).
Reproductive and Developmental Strategies: The Continuity of Life.
Springer. p. 290. ISBN 978-4-431-56609-0. Tuttle, Elaina M.;
Bergland, Alan O.; Korody, Marisa L.; Brewer, Michael S.; Newhouse,
Daniel J.; Minx, Patrick; Stager, Maria; Betuel, Adam; Cheviron, Zachary
A.; Warren, Wesley C.; Gonser, Rusty A.; Balakrishnan, Christopher N.
(2016). "Divergence and Functional Degradation of a Sex Chromosome-like
Supergene". Current Biology. 26 (3): 344–350.
doi:10.1016/j.cub.2015.11.069. PMC 4747794. PMID 26804558. Göth,
Anne (2007). "Incubation temperatures and sex ratios in Australian
brush-turkey (Alectura lathami) mounds". Austral Ecology. 32 (4):
278–285. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9993.2007.01709.x. Göth, A;
Booth, DT (March 2005). "Temperature-dependent sex ratio in a bird".
Biology Letters. 1 (1): 31–33. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2004.0247. PMC 1629050.
PMID 17148121. Maina, John N. (November 2006). "Development,
structure, and function of a novel respiratory organ, the lung-air sac
system of birds: to go where no other vertebrate has gone". Biological
Reviews. 81 (4): 545–579. doi:10.1017/S1464793106007111. PMID 17038201. Suthers,
Roderick A.; Sue Anne Zollinger (June 2004). "Producing song: the vocal
apparatus". Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1016 (1): 109–129.
Bibcode:2004NYASA1016..109S. doi:10.1196/annals.1298.041. PMID 15313772.
S2CID 45809019. Fitch, W.T. (1999). "Acoustic exaggeration
of size in birds via tracheal elongation: comparative and theoretical
analyses". Journal of Zoology. 248: 31–48.
doi:10.1017/S095283699900504X. Scott, Robert B. (March 1966).
"Comparative hematology: The phylogeny of the erythrocyte". Annals of
Hematology. 12 (6): 340–351. doi:10.1007/BF01632827. PMID 5325853. S2CID
29778484. Whittow, G. (2000). Whittow, G. Causey (ed.). Sturkie's Avian Physiology. San Diego: Academic Press. Molnar, Charles; Gair, Jane (14 May 2015). "21.3. Mammalian Heart and Blood Vessels". Hoagstrom,
C.W. (2002). "Vertebrate Circulation". Magill's Encyclopedia of
Science: Animal Life. Pasadena, California: Salem Press. 1: 217–219. Hill,
Richard W. (2012). Hill, Richard W.; Wyse, Gordon A.; Anderson,
Margaret (eds.). Animal Physiology (Third ed.). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer
Associates. pp. 647–678. Barbara, Taylor (2004). pockets: birds. UK: Dorling Kindersley. p. 16. ISBN 0-7513-5176-8. Sales,
James (2005). "The endangered kiwi: a review" (PDF). Folia Zoologica.
54 (1–2): 1–20. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 September 2007.
Retrieved 15 September 2007. Ehrlich, Paul R.; David S.
Dobkin; Darryl Wheye (1988). "The Avian Sense of Smell". Birds of
Stanford. Stanford University. Retrieved 13 December 2007. Lequette,
Benoit; Verheyden, Christophe; Jouventin, Pierre (August 1989).
"Olfaction in Subantarctic seabirds: Its phylogenetic and ecological
significance" (PDF). The Condor. 91 (3): 732–735. doi:10.2307/1368131.
JSTOR 1368131. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 December 2013. Wilkie,
Susan E.; Vissers, P. M.; Das, D.; Degrip, W. J.; Bowmaker, J. K.;
Hunt, D. M. (February 1998). "The molecular basis for UV vision in
birds: spectral characteristics, cDNA sequence and retinal localization
of the UV-sensitive visual pigment of the budgerigar (Melopsittacus
undulatus)". Biochemical Journal. 330 (Pt 1): 541–547.
doi:10.1042/bj3300541. PMC 1219171. PMID 9461554. Olsson,
Peter; Lind, Olle; Kelber, Almut; Simmons, Leigh (2018). "Chromatic and
achromatic vision: parameter choice and limitations for reliable model
predictions". Behavioral Ecology. 29 (2): 273–282.
doi:10.1093/beheco/arx133. ISSN 1045-2249. S2CID 90704358. Andersson,
S.; J. Ornborg; M. Andersson (1998). "Ultraviolet sexual dimorphism and
assortative mating in blue tits". Proceedings of the Royal Society B.
265 (1395): 445–450. doi:10.1098/rspb.1998.0315. PMC 1688915. Viitala,
Jussi; Korplmäki, Erkki; Palokangas, Pälvl; Koivula, Minna (1995).
"Attraction of kestrels to vole scent marks visible in ultraviolet
light". Nature. 373 (6513): 425–427. Bibcode:1995Natur.373..425V.
doi:10.1038/373425a0. S2CID 4356193. Pettingill, Olin Sewall
Jr. (1985). Ornithology in Laboratory and Field. Fifth Edition. Orlando,
FL: Academic Press. p. 11. ISBN 0-12-552455-2. Williams,
David L.; Flach, E (March 2003). "Symblepharon with aberrant protrusion
of the nictitating membrane in the snowy owl (Nyctea scandiaca)".
Veterinary Ophthalmology. 6 (1): 11–13.
doi:10.1046/j.1463-5224.2003.00250.x. PMID 12641836. Land, M.
F. (2014). "Eye movements of vertebrates and their relation to eye form
and function". Journal of Comparative Physiology A. 201 (2): 195–214.
doi:10.1007/s00359-014-0964-5. PMID 25398576. S2CID 15836436. Martin,
Graham R.; Katzir, G (1999). "Visual fields in Short-toed Eagles,
Circaetus gallicus (Accipitridae), and the function of binocularity in
birds". Brain, Behavior and Evolution. 53 (2): 55–66.
doi:10.1159/000006582. PMID 9933782. S2CID 44351032. Saito,
Nozomu (1978). "Physiology and anatomy of avian ear". The Journal of the
Acoustical Society of America. 64 (S1): S3.
Bibcode:1978ASAJ...64....3S. doi:10.1121/1.2004193. Warham,
John (1 May 1977). "The incidence, function and ecological significance
of petrel stomach oils" (PDF). Proceedings of the New Zealand Ecological
Society. 24 (3): 84–93. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October
2022. Dumbacher, J.P.; Beehler, BM; Spande, TF; Garraffo, HM;
Daly, JW (October 1992). "Homobatrachotoxin in the genus Pitohui:
chemical defense in birds?". Science. 258 (5083): 799–801.
Bibcode:1992Sci...258..799D. doi:10.1126/science.1439786. PMID 1439786. Longrich,
N.R.; Olson, S.L. (5 January 2011). "The bizarre wing of the Jamaican
flightless ibis Xenicibis xympithecus: a unique vertebrate adaptation".
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 278 (1716):
2333–2337. doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.2117. PMC 3119002. PMID 21208965. Belthoff,
James R.; Dufty; Gauthreaux (1 August 1994). "Plumage Variation, Plasma
Steroids and Social Dominance in Male House Finches". The Condor. 96
(3): 614–625. doi:10.2307/1369464. JSTOR 1369464. Guthrie, R.
Dale. "How We Use and Show Our Social Organs". Body Hot Spots: The
Anatomy of Human Social Organs and Behavior. Archived from the original
on 21 June 2007. Retrieved 19 October 2007. Humphrey, Philip
S.; Parkes, K. C. (1 June 1959). "An approach to the study of molts and
plumages" (PDF). The Auk. 76 (1): 1–31. doi:10.2307/4081839. JSTOR
4081839. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Pettingill Jr. OS (1970). Ornithology in Laboratory and Field. Burgess Publishing Co. ISBN 0-12-552455-2. de
Beer, S. J.; Lockwood, G. M.; Raijmakers, J. H. F. S.; Raijmakers, J.
M. H.; Scott, W. A.; Oschadleus, H. D.; Underhill, L. G. (2001). SAFRING
Bird Ringing Manual (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19
October 2017. Gargallo, Gabriel (1 June 1994). "Flight
Feather Moult in the Red-Necked Nightjar Caprimulgus ruficollis".
Journal of Avian Biology. 25 (2): 119–124. doi:10.2307/3677029. JSTOR
3677029. Mayr, Ernst (1954). "The tail molt of small owls"
(PDF). The Auk. 71 (2): 172–178. doi:10.2307/4081571. JSTOR 4081571.
Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 October 2014. Payne,
Robert B. "Birds of the World, Biology 532". Bird Division, University
of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Archived from the original on 26 February
2012. Retrieved 20 October 2007. Turner, J. Scott (1997).
"On the thermal capacity of a bird's egg warmed by a brood patch".
Physiological Zoology. 70 (4): 470–480. doi:10.1086/515854. PMID
9237308. S2CID 26584982. Walther, Bruno A. (2005). "Elaborate
ornaments are costly to maintain: evidence for high maintenance
handicaps". Behavioral Ecology. 16 (1): 89–95.
doi:10.1093/beheco/arh135. Shawkey, Matthew D.; Pillai,
Shreekumar R.; Hill, Geoffrey E. (2003). "Chemical warfare? Effects of
uropygial oil on feather-degrading bacteria". Journal of Avian Biology.
34 (4): 345–349. doi:10.1111/j.0908-8857.2003.03193.x. Ehrlich,
Paul R. (1986). "The Adaptive Significance of Anting" (PDF). The Auk.
103 (4): 835. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2016. Lucas,
Alfred M. (1972). Avian Anatomy – integument. East Lansing, Michigan:
USDA Avian Anatomy Project, Michigan State University. pp. 67, 344,
394–601. Roots, Clive (2006). Flightless Birds. Westport: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-33545-7. McNab,
Brian K. (October 1994). "Energy Conservation and the Evolution of
Flightlessness in Birds". The American Naturalist. 144 (4): 628–642.
doi:10.1086/285697. JSTOR 2462941. S2CID 86511951. "Flightlessness - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". Kovacs,
Christopher E.; Meyers, RA (2000). "Anatomy and histochemistry of
flight muscles in a wing-propelled diving bird, the Atlantic Puffin,
Fratercula arctica". Journal of Morphology. 244 (2): 109–125.
doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-4687(200005)244:2<109::AID-JMOR2>3.0.CO;2-0.
PMID 10761049. S2CID 14041453. Robert, Michel; McNeil,
Raymond; Leduc, Alain (January 1989). "Conditions and significance of
night feeding in shorebirds and other water birds in a tropical lagoon"
(PDF). The Auk. 106 (1): 94–101. doi:10.2307/4087761. JSTOR 4087761.
Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 October 2014. Gionfriddo,
James P.; Best (1 February 1995). "Grit Use by House Sparrows: Effects
of Diet and Grit Size" (PDF). Condor. 97 (1): 57–67.
doi:10.2307/1368983. JSTOR 1368983. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9
October 2022. Hagey, Lee R.; Vidal, Nicolas; Hofmann, Alan
F.; Krasowski, Matthew D. (2010). "Complex Evolution of Bile Salts in
Birds". The Auk. 127 (4): 820–831. doi:10.1525/auk.2010.09155. PMC
2990222. PMID 21113274. Attenborough, David (1998). The Life of Birds. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01633-X. Battley,
Phil F.; Piersma, T; Dietz, MW; Tang, S; Dekinga, A; Hulsman, K
(January 2000). "Empirical evidence for differential organ reductions
during trans-oceanic bird flight". Proceedings of the Royal Society B.
267 (1439): 191–195. doi:10.1098/rspb.2000.0986. PMC 1690512. PMID
10687826. (Erratum in Proceedings of the Royal Society B
267(1461):2567.) Reid, N. (2006). "Birds on New England wool
properties – A woolgrower guide" (PDF). Land, Water & Wool Northern
Tablelands Property Fact Sheet. Australian Government – Land and Water
Australia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 March 2011. Retrieved
17 July 2010. Nyffeler, M.; Şekercioğlu, Ç. H.; Whelan, C. J.
(August 2018). "Insectivorous birds consume an estimated 400–500
million tons of prey annually". The Science of Nature. 105 (7–8): 47.
Bibcode:2018SciNa.105...47N. doi:10.1007/s00114-018-1571-z. PMC 6061143.
PMID 29987431. Paton, D. C.; Collins, B.G. (1 April 1989).
"Bills and tongues of nectar-feeding birds: A review of morphology,
function, and performance, with intercontinental comparisons".
Australian Journal of Ecology. 14 (4): 473–506.
doi:10.1111/j.1442-9993.1989.tb01457.x. Baker, Myron Charles;
Baker, Ann Eileen Miller (1 April 1973). "Niche Relationships Among Six
Species of Shorebirds on Their Wintering and Breeding Ranges".
Ecological Monographs. 43 (2): 193–212. doi:10.2307/1942194. JSTOR
1942194. Cherel, Yves; Bocher, P; De Broyer, C; Hobson, KA
(2002). "Food and feeding ecology of the sympatric thin-billed
Pachyptila belcheri and Antarctic P. desolata prions at Iles Kerguelen,
Southern Indian Ocean". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 228: 263–281.
Bibcode:2002MEPS..228..263C. doi:10.3354/meps228263. Jenkin,
Penelope M. (1957). "The Filter-Feeding and Food of Flamingoes
(Phoenicopteri)". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 240
(674): 401–493. Bibcode:1957RSPTB.240..401J.
doi:10.1098/rstb.1957.0004. JSTOR 92549. S2CID 84979098. Hughes,
Baz; Green, Andy J. (2005). "Feeding Ecology". In Kear, Janet (ed.).
Ducks, Geese and Swans. Oxford University Press. pp. 42–44. ISBN
978-0-19-861008-3. Li, Zhiheng; Clarke, Julia A. (2016). "The
Craniolingual Morphology of Waterfowl (Aves, Anseriformes) and Its
Relationship with Feeding Mode Revealed Through Contrast-Enhanced X-Ray
Computed Tomography and 2D Morphometrics". Evolutionary Biology. 43:
12–25. doi:10.1007/s11692-015-9345-4. S2CID 17961182. Takahashi,
Akinori; Kuroki, Maki; Niizuma, Yasuaki; Watanuki, Yutaka (December
1999). "Parental Food Provisioning Is Unrelated to Manipulated Offspring
Food Demand in a Nocturnal Single-Provisioning Alcid, the Rhinoceros
Auklet". Journal of Avian Biology. 30 (4): 486. doi:10.2307/3677021.
JSTOR 3677021. Bélisle, Marc; Giroux (1 August 1995).
"Predation and kleptoparasitism by migrating Parasitic Jaegers" (PDF).
The Condor. 97 (3): 771–781. doi:10.2307/1369185. JSTOR 1369185.
Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Vickery,
J. A. (May 1994). "The Kleptoparasitic Interactions between Great
Frigatebirds and Masked Boobies on Henderson Island, South Pacific". The
Condor. 96 (2): 331–340. doi:10.2307/1369318. JSTOR 1369318. Hiraldo,
F. C.; Blanco, J. C.; Bustamante, J. (1991). "Unspecialized
exploitation of small carcasses by birds". Bird Studies. 38 (3):
200–207. doi:10.1080/00063659109477089. hdl:10261/47141. Engel,
Sophia Barbara (2005). Racing the wind: Water economy and energy
expenditure in avian endurance flight. University of Groningen. ISBN
90-367-2378-7. Archived from the original on 5 April 2020. Retrieved 25
November 2008. Tieleman, B.I.; Williams, JB (1999). "The role
of hyperthermia in the water economy of desert birds" (PDF). Physiol.
Biochem. Zool. 72 (1): 87–100. doi:10.1086/316640.
hdl:11370/6edc6940-c2e8-4c96-832e-0b6982dd59c1. PMID 9882607. S2CID
18920080. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Schmidt-Nielsen,
Knut (1 May 1960). "The Salt-Secreting Gland of Marine Birds".
Circulation. 21 (5): 955–967. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.21.5.955. PMID
14443123. S2CID 2757501. Hallager, Sara L. (1994). "Drinking methods in two species of bustards". Wilson Bull. 106 (4): 763–764. hdl:10088/4338. MacLean,
Gordon L. (1 June 1983). "Water Transport by Sandgrouse". BioScience.
33 (6): 365–369. doi:10.2307/1309104. JSTOR 1309104. Eraud C;
Dorie A; Jacquet A; Faivre B (2008). "The crop milk: a potential new
route for carotenoid-mediated parental effects" (PDF). Journal of Avian
Biology. 39 (2): 247–251. doi:10.1111/j.0908-8857.2008.04053.x. Archived
(PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Mario,
Principato; Federica, Lisi; Iolanda, Moretta; Nada, Samra; Francesco,
Puccetti (2005). "The alterations of plumage of parasitic origin".
Italian Journal of Animal Science. 4 (3): 296–299.
doi:10.4081/ijas.2005.296. S2CID 84770232. Revis, Hannah C.;
Waller, Deborah A. (2004). "Bactericidal and fungicidal activity of ant
chemicals on feather parasites: an evaluation of anting behavior as a
method of self-medication in songbirds". The Auk. 121 (4): 1262–1268.
doi:10.1642/0004-8038(2004)121[1262:BAFAOA]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 85677766. Clayton,
Dale H.; Koop, Jennifer A.H.; Harbison, Christopher W.; Moyer, Brett
R.; Bush, Sarah E. (2010). "How Birds Combat Ectoparasites". The Open
Ornithology Journal. 3: 41–71. doi:10.2174/1874453201003010041. Battley,
Phil F.; Piersma, T.; Dietz, M. W.; Tang, S; Dekinga, A.; Hulsman, K.
(January 2000). "Empirical evidence for differential organ reductions
during trans-oceanic bird flight". Proceedings of the Royal Society B.
267 (1439): 191–195. doi:10.1098/rspb.2000.0986. PMC 1690512. PMID
10687826. (Erratum in Proceedings of the Royal Society B
267(1461):2567.) Klaassen, Marc (1 January 1996). "Metabolic
constraints on long-distance migration in birds". Journal of
Experimental Biology. 199 (1): 57–64. doi:10.1242/jeb.199.1.57. PMID
9317335. "Long-distance Godwit sets new record". BirdLife
International. 4 May 2007. Archived from the original on 2 October 2013.
Retrieved 13 December 2007. Shaffer, Scott A.; et al.
(2006). "Migratory shearwaters integrate oceanic resources across the
Pacific Ocean in an endless summer". Proceedings of the National Academy
of Sciences of the United States of America. 103 (34): 12799–12802.
Bibcode:2006PNAS..10312799S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0603715103. PMC 1568927.
PMID 16908846. Croxall, John P.; Silk, J. R.; Phillips, R.
A.; Afanasyev, V.; Briggs, D. R. (2005). "Global Circumnavigations:
Tracking year-round ranges of nonbreeding Albatrosses". Science. 307
(5707): 249–250. Bibcode:2005Sci...307..249C.
doi:10.1126/science.1106042. PMID 15653503. S2CID 28990783. Wilson,
W. Herbert Jr. (1999). "Bird feeding and irruptions of northern
finches:are migrations short stopped?" (PDF). North America Bird Bander.
24 (4): 113–121. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 July 2014. Nilsson,
Anna L.K.; Alerstam, Thomas; Nilsson, Jan-Åke (2006). "Do partial and
regular migrants differ in their responses to weather?". The Auk. 123
(2): 537–547. doi:10.1642/0004-8038(2006)123[537:DPARMD]2.0.CO;2. S2CID
84665086. Chan, Ken (2001). "Partial migration in Australian
landbirds: a review". Emu. 101 (4): 281–292. doi:10.1071/MU00034. S2CID
82259620. Rabenold, Kerry N. (1985). "Variation in
Altitudinal Migration, Winter Segregation, and Site Tenacity in two
subspecies of Dark-eyed Juncos in the southern Appalachians" (PDF). The
Auk. 102 (4): 805–819. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October
2022. Collar, Nigel J. (1997). "Family Psittacidae
(Parrots)". In Josep del Hoyo; Andrew Elliott; Jordi Sargatal (eds.).
Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 4: Sandgrouse to Cuckoos.
Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. ISBN 84-87334-22-9. Matthews,
G.V.T. (1 September 1953). "Navigation in the Manx Shearwater". Journal
of Experimental Biology. 30 (2): 370–396. doi:10.1242/jeb.30.3.370. Mouritsen,
Henrik; Larsen, Ole Næsbye (15 November 2001). "Migrating songbirds
tested in computer-controlled Emlen funnels use stellar cues for a
time-independent compass". Journal of Experimental Biology. 204 (8):
3855–3865. doi:10.1242/jeb.204.22.3855. PMID 11807103. Deutschlander,
Mark E.; Phillips, J. B.; Borland, S. C. (15 April 1999). "The case for
light-dependent magnetic orientation in animals". Journal of
Experimental Biology. 202 (8): 891–908. doi:10.1242/jeb.202.8.891. PMID
10085262. Möller, Anders Pape (1988). "Badge size in the
house sparrow Passer domesticus". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology.
22 (5): 373–378. doi:10.1007/BF00295107. JSTOR 4600164. Thomas,
Betsy Trent; Strahl (1 August 1990). "Nesting Behavior of Sunbitterns
(Eurypyga helias) in Venezuela" (PDF). The Condor. 92 (3): 576–581.
doi:10.2307/1368675. JSTOR 1368675. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5
March 2016. Pickering, S. P. C. (2001). "Courtship behaviour
of the Wandering Albatross Diomedea exulans at Bird Island, South
Georgia" (PDF). Marine Ornithology. 29 (1): 29–37. Archived (PDF) from
the original on 9 October 2022. Pruett-Jones, S.G.;
Pruett-Jones (1 May 1990). "Sexual Selection Through Female Choice in
Lawes' Parotia, A Lek-Mating Bird of Paradise". Evolution. 44 (3):
486–501. doi:10.2307/2409431. JSTOR 2409431. PMID 28567971. Genevois,
F.; Bretagnolle, V. (1994). "Male Blue Petrels reveal their body mass
when calling". Ethology Ecology and Evolution. 6 (3): 377–383.
doi:10.1080/08927014.1994.9522988. Archived from the original on 24
December 2007. Jouventin, Pierre; Aubin, T; Lengagne, T (June
1999). "Finding a parent in a king penguin colony: the acoustic system
of individual recognition". Animal Behaviour. 57 (6): 1175–1183.
doi:10.1006/anbe.1999.1086. PMID 10373249. S2CID 45578269. Templeton,
Christopher N.; Greene, E; Davis, K (2005). "Allometry of Alarm Calls:
Black-Capped Chickadees Encode Information About Predator Size".
Science. 308 (5730): 1934–1937. Bibcode:2005Sci...308.1934T.
doi:10.1126/science.1108841. PMID 15976305. S2CID 42276496. Miskelly, C. M. (July 1987). "The identity of the hakawai". Notornis. 34 (2): 95–116. Dodenhoff,
Danielle J.; Stark, Robert D.; Johnson, Eric V. (2001). "Do woodpecker
drums encode information for species recognition?". The Condor. 103 (1):
143. doi:10.1650/0010-5422(2001)103[0143:DWDEIF]2.0.CO;2. ISSN
0010-5422. S2CID 31878910. Murphy, Stephen; Legge, Sarah;
Heinsohn, Robert (2003). "The breeding biology of palm cockatoos
(Probosciger aterrimus): a case of a slow life history". Journal of
Zoology. 261 (4): 327–339. doi:10.1017/S0952836903004175. Sekercioglu,
Cagan Hakki (2006). "Foreword". In Josep del Hoyo; Andrew Elliott;
David Christie (eds.). Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 11: Old
World Flycatchers to Old World Warblers. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. p.
48. ISBN 84-96553-06-X. Terborgh, John (2005). "Mixed flocks
and polyspecific associations: Costs and benefits of mixed groups to
birds and monkeys". American Journal of Primatology. 21 (2): 87–100.
doi:10.1002/ajp.1350210203. PMID 31963979. S2CID 83826161. Hutto,
Richard L. (January 1988). "Foraging Behavior Patterns Suggest a
Possible Cost Associated with Participation in Mixed-Species Bird
Flocks". Oikos. 51 (1): 79–83. doi:10.2307/3565809. JSTOR 3565809. Au,
David W.K.; Pitman (1 August 1986). "Seabird interactions with Dolphins
and Tuna in the Eastern Tropical Pacific" (PDF). The Condor. 88 (3):
304–317. doi:10.2307/1368877. JSTOR 1368877. Archived (PDF) from the
original on 9 October 2022. Anne, O.; Rasa, E. (June 1983).
"Dwarf mongoose and hornbill mutualism in the Taru desert, Kenya".
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 12 (3): 181–190.
doi:10.1007/BF00290770. S2CID 22367357. Gauthier-Clerc,
Michael; Tamisier, Alain; Cézilly, Frank (2000). "Sleep-Vigilance
Trade-off in Gadwall during the Winter Period" (PDF). The Condor. 102
(2): 307–313. doi:10.1650/0010-5422(2000)102[0307:SVTOIG]2.0.CO;2. JSTOR
1369642. S2CID 15957324. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27
December 2004. Bäckman, Johan; A (1 April 2002). "Harmonic
oscillatory orientation relative to the wind in nocturnal roosting
flights of the swift Apus apus". The Journal of Experimental Biology.
205 (7): 905–910. doi:10.1242/jeb.205.7.905. PMID 11916987. Rattenborg,
Niels C. (2006). "Do birds sleep in flight?". Die Naturwissenschaften.
93 (9): 413–425. Bibcode:2006NW.....93..413R.
doi:10.1007/s00114-006-0120-3. PMID 16688436. S2CID 1736369. Milius,
S. (6 February 1999). "Half-asleep birds choose which half dozes".
Science News Online. 155 (6): 86. doi:10.2307/4011301. JSTOR 4011301. Beauchamp,
Guy (1999). "The evolution of communal roosting in birds: origin and
secondary losses". Behavioral Ecology. 10 (6): 675–687.
doi:10.1093/beheco/10.6.675. Buttemer, William A. (1985).
"Energy relations of winter roost-site utilization by American
goldfinches (Carduelis tristis)" (PDF). Oecologia. 68 (1): 126–132.
Bibcode:1985Oecol..68..126B. doi:10.1007/BF00379484. hdl:2027.42/47760.
PMID 28310921. S2CID 17355506. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9
October 2022. Palmer, Meredith S.; Packer, Craig (2018).
"Giraffe bed and breakfast: Camera traps reveal Tanzanian yellow‐billed
oxpeckers roosting on their large mammalian hosts". African Journal of
Ecology. 56 (4): 882–884. doi:10.1111/aje.12505. ISSN 0141-6707. Buckley,
F.G.; Buckley (1 January 1968). "Upside-down Resting by Young
Green-Rumped Parrotlets (Forpus passerinus)". The Condor. 70 (1): 89.
doi:10.2307/1366517. JSTOR 1366517. Carpenter, F. Lynn
(1974). "Torpor in an Andean Hummingbird: Its Ecological Significance".
Science. 183 (4124): 545–547. Bibcode:1974Sci...183..545C.
doi:10.1126/science.183.4124.545. PMID 17773043. S2CID 42021321. McKechnie,
Andrew E.; Ashdown, Robert A.M.; Christian, Murray B.; Brigham, R. Mark
(2007). "Torpor in an African caprimulgid, the freckled nightjar
Caprimulgus tristigma". Journal of Avian Biology. 38 (3): 261–266.
doi:10.1111/j.2007.0908-8857.04116.x. Gill, Frank B.; Prum, Richard O. (2019). Ornithology (4 ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. pp. 390–396. Cabello-Vergel,
Julián; Soriano-Redondo, Andrea; Villegas, Auxiliadora; Masero, José
A.; Guzmán, Juan M. Sánchez; Gutiérrez, Jorge S. (2021). "Urohidrosis as
an overlooked cooling mechanism in long-legged birds". Scientific
Reports. 11 (1): 20018. Bibcode:2021NatSR..1120018C.
doi:10.1038/s41598-021-99296-8. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 8501033. PMID
34625581. Frith, C. B. (1981). "Displays of Count Raggi's
Bird-of-Paradise Paradisaea raggiana and congeneric species". Emu. 81
(4): 193–201. doi:10.1071/MU9810193. Freed, Leonard A.
(1987). "The Long-Term Pair Bond of Tropical House Wrens: Advantage or
Constraint?". The American Naturalist. 130 (4): 507–525.
doi:10.1086/284728. S2CID 84735736. Gowaty, Patricia A.
(1983). "Male Parental Care and Apparent Monogamy among Eastern
Bluebirds (Sialia sialis)". The American Naturalist. 121 (2): 149–160.
doi:10.1086/284047. S2CID 84258620. Westneat, David F.;
Stewart, Ian R.K. (2003). "Extra-pair paternity in birds: Causes,
correlates, and conflict". Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and
Systematics. 34: 365–396. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132439. Gowaty,
Patricia A.; Buschhaus, Nancy (1998). "Ultimate causation of aggressive
and forced copulation in birds: Female resistance, the CODE hypothesis,
and social monogamy". American Zoologist. 38 (1): 207–225.
doi:10.1093/icb/38.1.207. Sheldon, B (1994). "Male Phenotype,
Fertility, and the Pursuit of Extra-Pair Copulations by Female Birds".
Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 257 (1348): 25–30.
Bibcode:1994RSPSB.257...25S. doi:10.1098/rspb.1994.0089. S2CID 85745432. Wei,
G; Zuo-Hua, Yin; Fu-Min, Lei (2005). "Copulations and mate guarding of
the Chinese Egret". Waterbirds. 28 (4): 527–530.
doi:10.1675/1524-4695(2005)28[527:CAMGOT]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 86336632. Owens,
Ian P. F.; Bennett, Peter M. (1997). "Variation in mating system among
birds: ecological basis revealed by hierarchical comparative analysis of
mate desertion". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B:
Biological Sciences. 264 (1385): 1103–1110. doi:10.1098/rspb.1997.0152.
ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 1688567. Petrie, Marion; Kempenaers, Bart
(1998). "Extra-pair paternity in birds: explaining variation between
species and populations". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 13 (2):
52–58. doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(97)01232-9. PMID 21238200. Short, Lester L. (1993). Birds of the World and their Behavior. New York: Henry Holt and Co. ISBN 0-8050-1952-9. Burton, R (1985). Bird Behavior. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. ISBN 0-394-53957-5. Schamel,
D; Tracy, Diane M.; Lank, David B.; Westneat, David F. (2004). "Mate
guarding, copulation strategies and paternity in the sex-role reversed,
socially polyandrous red-necked phalarope Phalaropus lobatus".
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 57 (2): 110–118.
doi:10.1007/s00265-004-0825-2. S2CID 26038182. Attenborough, David (1998). The Life of Birds. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01633-X. Bagemihl, Bruce (1999). Biological exuberance: Animal homosexuality and natural diversity. New York: St. Martin's. pp. 479–655. MacFarlane,
Geoff R.; Blomberg, Simon P.; Kaplan, Gisela; Rogers, Lesley J. (1
January 2007). "Same-sex sexual behavior in birds: expression is related
to social mating system and state of development at hatching".
Behavioral Ecology. 18 (1): 21–33. doi:10.1093/beheco/arl065.
hdl:10.1093/beheco/arl065. ISSN 1045-2249. Kokko, H; Harris,
M; Wanless, S (2004). "Competition for breeding sites and site-dependent
population regulation in a highly colonial seabird, the common
guillemot Uria aalge". Journal of Animal Ecology. 73 (2): 367–376.
doi:10.1111/j.0021-8790.2004.00813.x. Booker, L; Booker, M (1991). "Why Are Cuckoos Host Specific?". Oikos. 57 (3): 301–309. doi:10.2307/3565958. JSTOR 3565958. Hansell, M (2000). Bird Nests and Construction Behaviour. University of Cambridge Press. ISBN 0-521-46038-7. Lafuma,
L.; Lambrechts, M.; Raymond, M. (2001). "Aromatic plants in bird nests
as a protection against blood-sucking flying insects?". Behavioural
Processes. 56 (2): 113–120. doi:10.1016/S0376-6357(01)00191-7. PMID
11672937. S2CID 43254694. Collias, Nicholas E.; Collias,
Elsie C. (1984). Nest building and bird behavior. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press. pp. 16–17, 26. ISBN 0691083584. Warham, J. (1990). The Petrels: Their Ecology and Breeding Systems. London: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-735420-4. Jones,
DN; Dekker, René WRJ; Roselaar, Cees S (1995). "The Megapodes". Bird
Families of the World 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN
0-19-854651-3. "AnAge: The animal ageing and longevity database". Human Ageing and Genomics Resources. Retrieved 26 September 2014. "Animal diversity web". University of Michigan, Museum of Zoology. Retrieved 26 September 2014. Urfi,
A. J. (2011). The Painted Stork: Ecology and Conservation. Springer
Science & Business Media. p. 88. ISBN 978-1-4419-8468-5. Khanna, D. R. (2005). Biology of Birds. Discovery Publishing House. p. 109. ISBN 978-81-7141-933-3. Scott, Lynnette (2008). Wildlife Rehabilitation. National Wildlife Rehabilitators Association. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-931439-23-7. Elliot,
A (1994). "Family Megapodiidae (Megapodes)". In del Hoyo, J.; Elliott,
A.; Sargatal, J. (eds.). Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 2: New
World Vultures to Guineafowl. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. ISBN
84-87334-15-6. Metz, V. G.; Schreiber, E. A. (2002). "Great
Frigatebird (Fregata minor)". In Poole, A.; Gill, F. (eds.). The Birds
of North America, No 681. Philadelphia: The Birds of North America Inc. Young, Euan (1994). Skua and Penguin. Predator and Prey. Cambridge University Press. p. 453. Ekman,
J. (2006). "Family living amongst birds". Journal of Avian Biology. 37
(4): 289–298. doi:10.1111/j.2006.0908-8857.03666.x. Cockburn A
(1996). "Why do so many Australian birds cooperate? Social evolution in
the Corvida". In Floyd R, Sheppard A, de Barro P (eds.). Frontiers in
Population Ecology. Melbourne: CSIRO. pp. 21–42. Cockburn,
Andrew (2006). "Prevalence of different modes of parental care in
birds". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 273 (1592): 1375–1383.
doi:10.1098/rspb.2005.3458. PMC 1560291. PMID 16777726. Gaston,
AJ (1994). "Ancient Murrelet (Synthliboramphus antiquus)". In Poole,
A.; Gill, F. (eds.). The Birds of North America, No. 132. Philadelphia
& Washington, D.C.: The Academy of Natural Sciences & The
American Ornithologists' Union. Schaefer, H. C.; Eshiamwata,
G. W.; Munyekenye, F. B.; Böhning-Gaese, K. (2004). "Life-history of two
African Sylvia warblers: low annual fecundity and long post-fledging
care". Ibis. 146 (3): 427–437. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.2004.00276.x. Alonso,
J. C.; Bautista, L. M.; Alonso, J. A. (2004). "Family-based
territoriality vs flocking in wintering common cranes Grus grus".
Journal of Avian Biology. 35 (5): 434–444.
doi:10.1111/j.0908-8857.2004.03290.x. hdl:10261/43767. Davies, N. (2000). Cuckoos, Cowbirds and other Cheats. London: T. & A. D. Poyser. ISBN 0-85661-135-2. Sorenson,
M. (1997). "Effects of intra- and interspecific brood parasitism on a
precocial host, the canvasback, Aythya valisineria". Behavioral Ecology.
8 (2): 153–161. doi:10.1093/beheco/8.2.153. Spottiswoode, C.
N.; Colebrook-Robjent, J. F. R. (2007). "Egg puncturing by the brood
parasitic Greater Honeyguide and potential host counteradaptations".
Behavioral Ecology. 18 (4): 792–799. doi:10.1093/beheco/arm025. Edwards,
DB (2012). "Immune investment is explained by sexual selection and
pace-of-life, but not longevity in parrots (Psittaciformes)". PLOS ONE. 7
(12): e53066. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...753066E.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0053066. PMC 3531452. PMID 23300862. Doutrelant,
C; Grégoire, A; Midamegbe, A; Lambrechts, M; Perret, P (January 2012).
"Female plumage coloration is sensitive to the cost of reproduction. An
experiment in blue tits". Journal of Animal Ecology. 81 (1): 87–96.
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2656.2011.01889.x. PMID 21819397. Hemmings
NL, Slate J, Birkhead TR (2012). "Inbreeding causes early death in a
passerine bird". Nat Commun. 3: 863. Bibcode:2012NatCo...3..863H.
doi:10.1038/ncomms1870. PMID 22643890. Keller LF, Grant PR,
Grant BR, Petren K (2002). "Environmental conditions affect the
magnitude of inbreeding depression in survival of Darwin's finches".
Evolution. 56 (6): 1229–1239. doi:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2002.tb01434.x.
PMID 12144022. S2CID 16206523. Kingma, SA; Hall, ML; Peters, A
(2013). "Breeding synchronization facilitates extrapair mating for
inbreeding avoidance". Behavioral Ecology. 24 (6): 1390–1397.
doi:10.1093/beheco/art078. Szulkin M, Sheldon BC (2008).
"Dispersal as a means of inbreeding avoidance in a wild bird
population". Proc. Biol. Sci. 275 (1635): 703–711.
doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.0989. PMC 2596843. PMID 18211876. Nelson-Flower
MJ, Hockey PA, O'Ryan C, Ridley AR (2012). "Inbreeding avoidance
mechanisms: dispersal dynamics in cooperatively breeding southern pied
babblers". J Anim Ecol. 81 (4): 876–883.
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2656.2012.01983.x. PMID 22471769. Riehl C,
Stern CA (2015). "How cooperatively breeding birds identify relatives
and avoid incest: New insights into dispersal and kin recognition".
BioEssays. 37 (12): 1303–1308. doi:10.1002/bies.201500120. PMID
26577076. S2CID 205476732. Charlesworth D, Willis JH (2009).
"The genetics of inbreeding depression". Nat. Rev. Genet. 10 (11):
783–796. doi:10.1038/nrg2664. PMID 19834483. S2CID 771357. Bernstein
H, Hopf FA, Michod RE (1987). "The molecular basis of the evolution of
sex". Adv. Genet. Advances in Genetics. 24: 323–370.
doi:10.1016/s0065-2660(08)60012-7. ISBN 9780120176243. PMID 3324702. Michod,
R.E. (1994). Eros and Evolution: A Natural Philosophy of Sex. Reading,
Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0201442328. Gong,
Lixin; Shi, Biye; Wu, Hui; Feng, Jiang; Jiang, Tinglei (2021). "Who's
for dinner? Bird prey diversity and choice in the great evening bat, Ia
io". Ecology and Evolution. 11 (13): 8400–8409. doi:10.1002/ece3.7667.
ISSN 2045-7758. PMC 8258197. PMID 34257905. Križanauskienė,
Asta; Hellgren, Olof; Kosarev, Vladislav; Sokolov, Leonid; Bensch,
Staffan; Valkiūnas, Gediminas (2006). "Variation in host specificty
between species of avian hemosporidian parasites: evidence from parasite
morphology and cytochrome b gene sequences". Journal of Parasitology.
92 (6): 1319–1324. doi:10.1645/GE-873R.1. ISSN 0022-3395. PMID 17304814.
S2CID 27746219. Clout, M; Hay, J (1989). "The importance of
birds as browsers, pollinators and seed dispersers in New Zealand
forests" (PDF). New Zealand Journal of Ecology. 12: 27–33. Stiles,
F. Gary (1981). "Geographical Aspects of Bird-Flower Coevolution, with
Particular Reference to Central America". Annals of the Missouri
Botanical Garden. 68 (2): 323–351. doi:10.2307/2398801. JSTOR 2398801.
S2CID 87692272. Temeles, E.; Linhart, Y.; Masonjones, M.;
Masonjones, H. (2002). "The Role of Flower Width in Hummingbird Bill
Length–Flower Length Relationships" (PDF). Biotropica. 34 (1): 68–80.
doi:10.1111/j.1744-7429.2002.tb00243.x. S2CID 16315843. Bond,
William J.; Lee, William G.; Craine, Joseph M. (2004). "Plant
structural defences against browsing birds: a legacy of New Zealand's
extinct moas". Oikos. 104 (3): 500–508.
doi:10.1111/j.0030-1299.2004.12720.x. Berner, Lewis; Hicks,
Ellis A. (June 1959). "Checklist and Bibliography on the Occurrence of
Insects in Birds Nests". The Florida Entomologist. 42 (2): 92.
doi:10.2307/3492142. ISSN 0015-4040. JSTOR 3492142. Boyes,
Douglas H.; Lewis, Owen T. (2019). "Ecology of Lepidoptera associated
with bird nests in mid-Wales, UK". Ecological Entomology. 44 (1): 1–10.
doi:10.1111/een.12669. ISSN 1365-2311. S2CID 91557693. Wainright,
S.; Haney, J.; Kerr, C.; Golovkin, A.; Flint, M. (1998). "Utilization
of nitrogen derived from seabird guano by terrestrial and marine plants
at St. Paul, Pribilof Islands, Bering Sea, Alaska". Marine Biology. 131
(1): 63–71. doi:10.1007/s002270050297. S2CID 83734364. Bosman,
A.; Hockey, A. (1986). "Seabird guano as a determinant of rocky
intertidal community structure". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 32:
247–257. Bibcode:1986MEPS...32..247B. doi:10.3354/meps032247. Sutherland,
William J.; Newton, Ian; Green, Rhys E. (2004). Bird Ecology and
Conservation. A Handbook of Techniques. Oxford University Press. ISBN
0198520859. Bonney, Rick; Rohrbaugh, Ronald Jr. (2004).
Handbook of Bird Biology (Second ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press. ISBN 0-938027-62-X. Dean, W. R. J.;
Siegfried, W. ROY; MacDonald, I. A. W. (1990). "The Fallacy, Fact, and
Fate of Guiding Behavior in the Greater Honeyguide". Conservation
Biology. 4: 99–101. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.1990.tb00272.x. Singer,
R.; Yom-Tov, Y. (1988). "The Breeding Biology of the House Sparrow
Passer domesticus in Israel". Ornis Scandinavica. 19 (2): 139–144.
doi:10.2307/3676463. JSTOR 3676463. Dolbeer, Richard (1990).
"Ornithology and integrated pest management: Red-winged blackbirds
Agleaius phoeniceus and corn". Ibis. 132 (2): 309–322.
doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1990.tb01048.x. Dolbeer, R.; Belant,
J.; Sillings, J. (1993). "Shooting Gulls Reduces Strikes with Aircraft
at John F. Kennedy International Airport". Wildlife Society Bulletin.
21: 442–450. Bryce, Emma (16 March 2016). "Will Wind Turbines
Ever Be Safe for Birds?". Audubon. US: National Audubon Society.
Retrieved 19 March 2017. Zimmer, Carl (19 September 2019). "Birds Are Vanishing From North America". The New York Times. Retrieved 19 September 2019. Reed,
K. D.; Meece, J. K.; Henkel, J. S.; Shukla, S. K. (2003). "Birds,
Migration and Emerging Zoonoses: West Nile Virus, Lyme Disease,
Influenza A and Enteropathogens". Clinical Medicine & Research. 1
(1): 5–12. doi:10.3121/cmr.1.1.5. PMC 1069015. PMID 15931279. Brown,
Lester (2005). "3: Moving Up the Food Chain Efficiently.". Outgrowing
the Earth: The Food Security Challenge in an Age of Falling Water Tables
and Rising Temperatures. earthscan. ISBN 978-1-84407-185-2. "Poultry
species: Gateway to poultry production and products". Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. FAO. Retrieved 27
January 2023. Hamilton, S. (2000). "How precise and accurate
are data obtained using. an infra-red scope on burrow-nesting sooty
shearwaters Puffinus griseus?" (PDF). Marine Ornithology. 28 (1): 1–6.
Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Keane,
Aidan; Brooke, M. de L.; McGowan, P. J. K. (2005). "Correlates of
extinction risk and hunting pressure in gamebirds (Galliformes)".
Biological Conservation. 126 (2): 216–233.
doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2005.05.011. "The Guano War of 1865–1866". World History at KMLA. Retrieved 18 December 2007. Cooney,
R.; Jepson, P. (2006). "The international wild bird trade: what's wrong
with blanket bans?". Oryx. 40 (1): 18–23.
doi:10.1017/S0030605306000056. Manzi, M.; Coomes, O. T.
(2002). "Cormorant fishing in Southwestern China: a Traditional Fishery
under Siege. (Geographical Field Note)". Geographical Review. 92 (4):
597–603. doi:10.2307/4140937. JSTOR 4140937. Pullis La
Rouche, G. (2006). "Birding in the United States: a demographic and
economic analysis". In Boere, G. C.; Galbraith, C. A.; Stroud, D. A.
(eds.). Waterbirds around the world (PDF). JNCC.gov.uk. Edinburgh: The
Stationery Office. pp. 841–846. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4
March 2011. Chamberlain, D. E.; Vickery, J. A.; Glue, D. E.;
Robinson, R. A.; Conway, G. J.; Woodburn, R. J. W.; Cannon, A. R.
(2005). "Annual and seasonal trends in the use of garden feeders by
birds in winter". Ibis. 147 (3): 563–575.
doi:10.1111/j.1474-919x.2005.00430.x. Routledge, S.;
Routledge, K. (1917). "The Bird Cult of Easter Island". Folklore. 28
(4): 337–355. doi:10.1080/0015587X.1917.9719006. S2CID 4216509. Ingersoll, Ernest (1923). "Birds in legend, fable and folklore". Longmans, Green and Co. p. 214 – via Wayback Machine. Hauser,
A. J. (1985). "Jonah: In Pursuit of the Dove". Journal of Biblical
Literature. 104 (1): 21–37. doi:10.2307/3260591. JSTOR 3260591. Thankappan
Nair, P. (1974). "The Peacock Cult in Asia". Asian Folklore Studies. 33
(2): 93–170. doi:10.2307/1177550. JSTOR 1177550. Botterweck,
G. Johannes; Ringgren, Helmer (1990). Theological Dictionary of the Old
Testament. Vol. VI. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing
Co. pp. 35–36. ISBN 0-8028-2330-0. Lewis, Sian;
Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd (2018). The Culture of Animals in Antiquity: A
Sourcebook with Commentaries. New York City, New York and London,
England: Routledge. p. 335. ISBN 978-1-315-20160-3. Resig,
Dorothy D. (9 February 2013). "The Enduring Symbolism of Doves, From
Ancient Icon to Biblical Mainstay". BAR Magazine Bib-arch.org. Archived
from the original on 31 January 2013. Retrieved 5 March 2013. Cyrino,
Monica S. (2010). Aphrodite. Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World. New
York City, New York and London, England: Routledge. pp. 120–123. ISBN
978-0-415-77523-6. Tinkle, Theresa (1996). Medieval Venuses
and Cupids: Sexuality, Hermeneutics, and English Poetry. Stanford,
California: Stanford University Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0804725156. Simon,
Erika (1983). Festivals of Attica: An Archaeological Companion.
Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-09184-8. Deacy,
Susan; Villing, Alexandra (2001). Athena in the Classical World.
Leiden, The Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill NV. ISBN 978-9004121423. Deacy, Susan (2008). Athena. London and New York City: Routledge. pp. 34–37, 74–75. ISBN 978-0-415-30066-7. Nilsson,
Martin Persson (1950). The Minoan-Mycenaean Religion and Its Survival
in Greek Religion (second ed.). New York City, New York: Biblo &
Tannen. pp. 491–496. ISBN 0-8196-0273-6. Smith, S. (2011).
"Generative landscapes: the step mountain motif in Tiwanaku iconography"
(PDF). Ancient America. 12: 1–69. Archived from the original (Automatic
PDF download) on 6 January 2019. Retrieved 24 April 2014. Meighan,
C.W. (1966). "Prehistoric Rock Paintings in Baja California". American
Antiquity. 31 (3): 372–392. doi:10.2307/2694739. JSTOR 2694739. S2CID
163584284. Conard, Nicholas J. (2003). "Palaeolithic ivory
sculptures from southwestern Germany and the origins of figurative art".
Nature. 426 (6968): 830–832. Bibcode:2003Natur.426..830C.
doi:10.1038/nature02186. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 14685236. S2CID 4349167. Tennyson, A; Martinson, P (2006). Extinct Birds of New Zealand. Wellington: Te Papa Press. ISBN 978-0-909010-21-8. Clarke,
CP (1908). "A Pedestal of the Platform of the Peacock Throne". The
Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin. 3 (10): 182–183.
doi:10.2307/3252550. JSTOR 3252550. Boime, Albert (1999).
"John James Audubon: a birdwatcher's fanciful flights". Art History. 22
(5): 728–755. doi:10.1111/1467-8365.00184. Chandler, A. (1934). "The Nightingale in Greek and Latin Poetry". The Classical Journal. 30 (2): 78–84. JSTOR 3289944. Lasky,
E. D. (March 1992). "A Modern Day Albatross: The Valdez and Some of
Life's Other Spills". The English Journal. 81 (3): 44–46.
doi:10.2307/820195. JSTOR 820195. Carson, A. (1998). "Vulture
Investors, Predators of the 90s: An Ethical Examination". Journal of
Business Ethics. 17 (5): 543–555. doi:10.1023/A:1017974505642. S2CID
156972909. "US Warplane Aircraft Names" (PDF). uswarpalnes.net. Retrieved 24 March 2023.[unreliable source?] Enriquez,
P. L.; Mikkola, H. (1997). "Comparative study of general public owl
knowledge in Costa Rica, Central America and Malawi, Africa". In Duncan,
J. R.; Johnson, D. H.; Nicholls, T. H. (eds.). Biology and conservation
of owls of the Northern Hemisphere. General Technical Report NC-190.
St. Paul, Minnesota: USDA Forest Service. pp. 160–166. Lewis, DP (2005). "Owls in Mythology and Culture". Owlpages.com. Retrieved 15 September 2007. Dupree,
N. (1974). "An Interpretation of the Role of the Hoopoe in Afghan
Folklore and Magic". Folklore. 85 (3): 173–193.
doi:10.1080/0015587X.1974.9716553. JSTOR 1260073. Fox-Davies, A. C. (1985). A Complete Guide to Heraldry. Bloomsbury. "Flag description - the World Factbook". "List of National Birds of All Countries". Head,
Matthew (1997). "Birdsong and the Origins of Music". Journal of the
Royal Musical Association. 122 (1): 1–23. doi:10.1093/jrma/122.1.1. Clark,
Suzannah (2001). Music Theory and Natural Order from the Renaissance to
the Early Twentieth Century. Cambridge University Press. ISBN
0-521-77191-9. Reich, Ronni (15 October 2010). "NJIT
professor finds nothing cuckoo in serenading our feathered friends".
Star Ledger. Retrieved 19 June 2011. Taylor, Hollis (21 March
2011). "Composers' Appropriation of Pied Butcherbird Song: Henry Tate's
"undersong of Australia" Comes of Age". Journal of Music Research
Online. 2. Fuller, Errol (2000). Extinct Birds (2nd ed.). Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-850837-9. Steadman,
D. (2006). Extinction and Biogeography in Tropical Pacific Birds.
University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-77142-7. "BirdLife
International announces more Critically Endangered birds than ever
before". BirdLife International. 14 May 2009. Archived from the original
on 17 June 2013. Retrieved 15 May 2009. Kinver, Mark (13 May 2009). "Birds at risk reach record high". BBC News Online. Retrieved 15 May 2009. Norris,
K; Pain, D, eds. (2002). Conserving Bird Biodiversity: General
Principles and their Application. Cambridge University Press. ISBN
978-0-521-78949-3. Brothers, N. P. (1991). "Albatross
mortality and associated bait loss in the Japanese longline fishery in
the southern ocean". Biological Conservation. 55 (3): 255–268.
doi:10.1016/0006-3207(91)90031-4. Wurster, D.; Wurster, C.;
Strickland, W. (July 1965). "Bird Mortality Following DDT Spray for
Dutch Elm Disease". Ecology. 46 (4): 488–499. doi:10.2307/1934880. JSTOR
1934880.; Wurster, C.F.; Wurster, D.H.; Strickland, W.N. (1965). "Bird
Mortality after Spraying for Dutch Elm Disease with DDT". Science. 148
(3666): 90–91. Bibcode:1965Sci...148...90W.
doi:10.1126/science.148.3666.90. PMID 14258730. S2CID 26320497. Blackburn,
T.; Cassey, P.; Duncan, R.; Evans, K.; Gaston, K. (24 September 2004).
"Avian Extinction and Mammalian Introductions on Oceanic Islands".
Science. 305 (5692): 1955–1958. Bibcode:2004Sci...305.1955B.
doi:10.1126/science.1101617. PMID 15448269. S2CID 31211118. Butchart,
S.; Stattersfield, A.; Collar, N (2006). "How many bird extinctions
have we prevented?". Oryx. 40 (3): 266–79.
doi:10.1017/S0030605306000950. Further reading Library resources about Bird Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries All the Birds of the World, Lynx Edicions, 2020. Del
Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi (eds.). Handbook of the
Birds of the World (17-volume encyclopaedia), Lynx Edicions, Barcelona,
1992–2010. (Vol. 1: Ostrich to Ducks: ISBN 978-84-87334-10-8, etc.). Lederer,
Roger; Carol Burr (2014). Latein für Vogelbeobachter: über 3000
ornithologische Begriffe erklärt und erforscht, aus dem Englischen
übersetzt von Susanne Kuhlmannn-Krieg, Verlag DuMont, Köln, ISBN
978-3-8321-9491-8. National Geographic Field Guide to Birds of North America, National Geographic, 7th edition, 2017. ISBN 9781426218354 National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Birds: Eastern Region, National Audubon Society, Knopf. National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Birds: Western Region, National Audubon Society, Knopf. Svensson, Lars (2010). Birds of Europe, Princeton University Press, second edition. ISBN 9780691143927 Svensson,
Lars (2010). Collins Bird Guide: The Most Complete Guide to the Birds
of Britain and Europe, Collins, 2nd edition. ISBN 978-0007268146 External links Listen to this article (4 minutes) 3:48Spoken Wikipedia icon This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 5 January 2008, and does not reflect subsequent edits. (Audio help · More spoken articles) Bird at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Taxa from Wikispecies The Wikibook Dichotomous Key has a page on the topic of: Aves Birdlife
International – Dedicated to bird conservation worldwide; has a
database with about 250,000 records on endangered bird species. Bird biogeography Birds and Science from the National Audubon Society Cornell Lab of Ornithology "Bird" at the Encyclopedia of Life Edit this at Wikidata Essays on bird biology North American Birds for Kids Archived 9 August 2010 at the Wayback Machine Ornithology Sora
– Searchable online research archive; Archives of the following
ornithological journals The Auk, Condor, Journal of Field Ornithology',
North American Bird Bander, Studies in Avian Biology, Pacific Coast
Avifauna, and the Wilson Bulletin. The Internet Bird Collection – A free library of videos of the world's birds The Institute for Bird Populations, California List of field guides to birds, from the International Field Guides database RSPB bird identifier Archived 5 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine – Interactive identification of all UK birds Are Birds Really Dinosaurs? — University of California Museum of Paleontology. vte Birds (class: Aves) Outline Anatomy BeakCrop milkDactylyEggsFeathersFlightPreen glandPlumageVision Behaviour SingingIntelligenceMigrationForagingSexual selectionLek matingSeabird breedingIncubationBrood parasitesNestingHybrids Evolution Origin of birds TheropodadinosaursOrigin of flightEvolution of birdsDarwin's finchesSeabirds Fossil birds ArchaeopteryxOmnivoropterygiformesConfuciusornithiformesEnantiornithesChaoyangiformesPatagopterygiformesAmbiortiformesSonglingornithiformesHongshanornithidaeGansuiformesIchthyornithiformesHesperornithesLithornithiformesDinornithiformesAepyornithiformesGastornithiformes Human interaction RingingOrnithologyOrnithomancyBird
collectionsBirdwatching big yearBird
feedingConservationAvicultureWaterfowl huntingCockfightingPigeon
racingFalconryPheasantryImpingEgg collecting Lists Families
and ordersGeneraGlossary of bird termsList by populationLists by
regionExtinct species since 1500Late Quaternary prehistoric birdsNotable
birds individualsfictional Neornithes Category Commons Portal WikiProject vte Extant chordate classes Kingdom Animalia(unranked) BilateriaSuperphylum Deuterostomia Cephalochordata Leptocardii (lancelets) Olfactores Tunicata (Urochordata) Appendicularia (larvaceans)Ascidiacea (sea squirts)Thaliacea (pyrosomes, salps, doliolids) Vertebrata Cyclostomata Myxini (hagfish)Hyperoartia (lampreys) Gnathostomata (jawed vertebrates) Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish: sharks, rays, chimaeras) Euteleostomi (bony vertebrates) Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish) Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish) Actinistia (coelacanths)¹ Rhipidistia Dipnoi (lungfish)¹ Tetrapoda Lissamphibia (modern amphibians: frogs, salamanders, caecilians) Amniota Mammalia (mammals) Sauria Lepidosauria Rhynchocephalia (tuatara)²Squamata (scaled reptiles)² Archelosauria Testudines (turtles)² Archosauria Crocodilia (crocodilians)²Aves (birds) ¹subclasses of Sarcopterygii²orders of class Reptilia (reptiles)italics denote paraphyletic groups vte Maniraptora Kingdom: AnimaliaPhylum: ChordataClade: DinosauriaClade: TheropodaClade: Maniraptoriformes Avemetatarsalia see Avemetatarsalia Theropoda see Theropoda Maniraptora see below↓ Maniraptora Maniraptora †Elopteryx?†Fukuivenator?†Kakuru?†Migmanychion†Yaverlandia? †Alvarezsauroidea Aorun?BannykusHaplocheirusShishugounykusTugulusaurus?XiyunykusPatagonykinae? Alvarezsauridae Achillesaurus?AlnashetriAlvarezsaurusBradycnemeHeptasteornis Patagonykinae? BonapartenykusPatagonykus Parvicursorinae DzharaonyxKhulsanurusKol?NemegtonykusOndogurvelParvicursorQiupanykusTrierarchuncus Ceratonykini AlbinykusCeratonykusXixianykus Mononykini AlbertonykusLinhenykusMononykusShuvuuia †Therizinosauria Eshanosaurus?FalcariusFukuivenator?JianchangosaurusLingyuanosaurus Therizinosauroidea AlxasaurusBeipiaosaurusEnigmosaurusMartharaptorSuzhousaurus Therizinosauridae ErliansaurusErlikosaurusNanshiungosaurusNeimongosaurusNothronychusParalitherizinosaurusSegnosaurusTherizinosaurus Pennaraptora see below↓ Patagonykus puertai Mononykus olecranus Therizinosaurus cheloniformis Pennaraptora †Oviraptorosauria IncisivosaurusNingyuansaurusProtarchaeopteryxScansoriopterygidae? Caudipteridae CaudipteryxSimilicaudipteryxXingtianosaurus Caenagnathoidea AvimimusKol? Caenagnathidae AnomalipesBeibeilongChirostenotesGigantoraptorLeptorhynchosHagryphusMicrovenatorNomingia?Ojoraptorsaurus Elmisaurinae CitipesElmisaurus Caenagnathinae AnzuApatoraptorCaenagnathasiaCaenagnathusEpichirostenotes Oviraptoridae LuoyanggiaNankangiaNomingia?TongtianlongYulong Oviraptorinae CitipatiCorythoraptor?Huanansaurus?OviraptorRinchenia? Heyuanninae Banji?ConchoraptorGanzhousaurus?GobiraptorHeyuanniaJiangxisaurusKhaanMachairasaurusNemegtomaiaOksokoShixinggia? Paraves †Imperobator†Palaeopteryx?†Pneumatoraptor†Rahonavis †Scansoriopterygidae? AmbopteryxEpidexipteryxScansoriopteryxYi †Anchiornithidae AnchiornisAurornisCaihongEosinopteryxLiaoningvenator?OstromiaPedopennaSerikornisXiaotingiaYixianosaurus Eumaniraptora see below↓ Apatoraptor pennatus Nemegtomaia barsboldi Anchiornis huxleyi Eumaniraptora †Dromaeosauridae DaurlongPyroraptorShanagVariraptorZhenyuanlong Halszkaraptorinae? HalszkaraptorHulsanpesMahakalaNatovenator Unenlagiinae? AustroraptorBuitreraptorDakotaraptor?NeuquenraptorOrnithodesmus?PamparaptorPyroraptor?Rahonavis?UnenlagiaUnquillosaurus?Variraptor?Ypupiara Microraptoria? ChangyuraptorGraciliraptorHesperonychusMicroraptorSinornithosaurusTianyuraptorWulongZhongjianosaurus Eudromaeosauria BambiraptorDineobellatorTianyuraptor?VectiraptorZhenyuanlong? Saurornitholestinae AtrociraptorBambiraptor?Saurornitholestes Dromaeosaurinae AchillobatorDakotaraptor?Deinonychus?DromaeosauroidesDromaeosaurusItemirusSaurornitholestes?UtahraptorYurgovuchiaZapsalis Velociraptorinae AcheroraptorAdasaurusBoreonykus?Deinonychus?KansaignathusKuruLinheraptorLuanchuanraptor?Nuthetes?Saurornitholestes?ShriTsaaganVelociraptor †Troodontidae AlbertavenatorArchaeornithoides?GeminiraptorHesperornithoidesJianianhualongKoparion?LiaoningvenatorPapiliovenatorParonychodon?Polyodontosaurus?SinornithoidesTalosTochisaurusXixiasaurusAnchiornithidae? Jinfengopteryginae Almas?JinfengopteryxLiaoningvenator?Philovenator?Tamarro Sinovenatorinae DaliansaurusMeiSinovenatorSinusonasus Troodontinae BorogoviaByronosaurus?GobivenatorLatenivenatrixLinhevenatorPectinodonPhilovenator?SaurornithoidesStenonychosaurusTroodonUrbacodonZanabazar Avialae see below↓ Halszkaraptor escuilliei Austroraptor cabazai Microraptor gui Utahraptor ostrommaysorum Zanabazar junior Avialae Avialae †Alcmonavis†Balaur†Cretaaviculus?†Fukuipteryx†Overoraptor†Rahonavis?†Yandangornis†Anchiornithidae?†Scansoriopterygidae? †Archaeopterygidae? Alcmonavis?ArchaeopteryxWellnhoferiaAnchiornithidae? †Jeholornithiformes Dalianraptor?JeholornisJixiangornis?KompsornisNeimengornis Euavialae †Jixiangornis? Avebrevicauda †Zhongornis †Omnivoropterygidae OmnivoropteryxSapeornis Pygostylia †"Proornis"†Omnivoropterygidae? †Confuciusornithidae ChangchengornisConfuciusornisEoconfuciusornisYangavis †Jinguofortisidae ChongmingiaCratonavisJinguofortis Ornithothoraces see below↓ Archaeopteryx lithographica Confuciusornis sp. Ornithothoraces †Enantiornithes BrevirostruavisCastignovolucrisDalingheornisElsornisEoalulavisEocathayornis?FalcatakelyFeitianiusFortipesavisHouornisIlerdopteryxLiaoningornisLiaoxiornis?MicroenantiornisMirusavisParaprotopteryxPraeornis?ProtopteryxYuanjiawaornisYuornis Iberomesornithidae IberomesornisNoguerornis Pengornithidae ChiappeavisEopengornisParapengornisPengornisYuanchuavis Longipterygidae BoluochiaCamptodontornisDapingfangornisEvgenavis?LongipteryxLongirostravisRapaxavisShanweiniaoShengjingornis Euenantiornithes AbavornisAlethoalaornisAlexornisAvimaiaCatenoleimusCathayornisCratoavisCruralispenniaCuspirostrisornisDunhuangiaElbretornisElektorornisEnantiornisEoenantiornisExplorornisFlexomornisFortunguavisGrabauornisGracilornisGurilyniaHolbotiaHuoshanornisIncolornisJunornisKizylkumavisKuszholia?LargirostrornisLectavisLenesornisLongchengornisMartinavisMonoenantiornisMusivavisNanantiusOrienantiusOtogornisParvavisPiscivorenantiornisPlatanavis?PterygornisQilianiaSazavisShangyangSinornisXiangornisYatenavisYungavolucris Bohaiornithidae BeiguornisBohaiornisGretcheniaoLinyiornisLongusunguisParabohaiornisShenqiornisSulcavisZhouornis Gobipterygidae GobipteryxJibeinia?Vescornis? Avisauridae (sensu Cau & Arduini, 2008) Bauxitornis?Concornis?EnantiophoenixHalimornisMystiornis Avisauridae (sensu Chiappe, 1992) AvisaurusGettyiaIntiornisMirarceNeuquenornisSoroavisaurus Euornithes see below↓ Longipteryx chaoyangensis Cruralispennia multidonta Euornithes Euornithes †Archaeorhynchus†Bellulornis†Brevidentavis†Changmaornis†Changzuiornis†Chaoyangia†Dingavis†Eogranivora†Gansus†Gargantuavis?†Hollanda†Horezmavis†Iteravis†Jianchangornis†Jiuquanornis†Juehuaornis†Kaririavis†Khinganornis†Meemannavis†Platanavis†Vorona†Wyleyia?†Xinghaiornis†Yumenornis†Zhongjianornis †Schizoouridae MengciusornisSchizooura †Patagopterygiformes AlamitornisKuszholia?Patagopteryx †Ambiortiformes AmbiortusApsaravis?Palintropus? †Hongshanornithidae ArchaeornithuraHongshanornisLongicrusavisParahongshanornisTianyuornis †Songlingornithidae Hollanda?Piscivoravis?SonglingornisYanornis?Yixianornis? †Yanornithidae AbitusavisSimiliyanornisYanornis Ornithurae †Antarcticavis?†Apatornis†Cerebavis†Gallornis†Guildavis†Iaceornis†Kookne†Limenavis†Qinornis†Tingmiatornis †Ichthyornithes IchthyornisJanavis †Hesperornithes BaptornisBrodavisChupkaornisEnaliornisJudinornisPasquiaornisPotamornis Hesperornithidae AsiahesperornisCanadagaFumicollisHesperornisParahesperornis †Vegaviidae Australornis?MaaqwiNeogaeornis?PolarornisVegavis †Cimolopterygidae CeramornisCimolopteryxLamarqueavis? Aves / Neornithes Palaeognathae see Palaeognathae Neognathae PangalloanseraePanneoaves Patagopteryx deferrariisi Ichthyornis dispar See also: ArchaeornithesCarinataeDeinonychosauriaOdontognathaeOdontornithesSauriuraeUnenlagiidae Category vte Human uses of birds Activities AvicultureBirdwatching
Big yearBird conservationFletchingIn sport CockfightingFalconryPigeon
racingVinkensportIn science Model organismOrnithologyIn mythology and
religion AugurySacred ibisSky burialIn hunting Cormorant fishingDriven
grouse shootingPlume huntingWildfowling Products ChickenDownEggFeatherGuanoPoultry In the arts In
art Bird-and-flower paintingFeather tightsIn heraldry
AvalerionCrow/RavenEagleGallic roosterMartletTurulIn poetry The
Conference of the BirdsOde to a NightingaleTo a SkylarkCrowIn prose A
History of British BirdsThe Tale of Jemima Puddle-DuckThe Ugly
DucklingJonathan Livingston SeagullIn theatre and ballet The BirdsSwan
LakeThe FirebirdIn film The BirdsKesThe Big YearAnimated filmsChicken
filmsHorror filmsIn musicIn fashion AigretteFeather boaFeather cloakIn
dance CendrawasihChicken dance Species Golden eaglePenguinPigeon/DoveRaven of the Tower of London People Illustrators
John James Audubon (The Birds of America)Thomas BewickJohn GouldLars
JonssonJohn Gerrard KeulemansEdward LearRichard LewingtonRoger Tory
PetersonHenry Constantine RichterJoseph SmitArchibald ThorburnJoseph
WolfConservationists Niels KrabbePeter ScottOrganisations BirdLife
InternationalRoyal Society for the Protection of BirdsWildfowl &
Wetlands Trust Related Human–dinosaur coexistenceCategory:Birds and humansZoomusicology vte Lists of dinosaurs by continent Non-avian dinosaurs African MadagascanAppalachia (former continent)Asian IndianEuropeanNorth AmericanSouth AmericanAustralian and Antarctic Birds AfricanAsian IndianEuropeanNorth AmericanSouth AmericanAntarcticAustralian Taxon identifiers Wikidata:
Q5113Wikispecies: AvesADW: AvesAFD: AvesBOLD: 51CoL: V2EoL: 695EPPO:
1AVESCFauna Europaea: 10699Fauna Europaea (new):
f2fd1555-ab1f-40f7-9cbf-abebff1ffbdaFossilworks: 36616GBIF:
212iNaturalist: 3IRMNG: 1142ITIS: 174371NCBI: 8782NZOR:
dcced4e7-06b1-466e-9d85-5a384501dac2Open Tree of Life: 81461Plazi:
E1E0B077-76F6-D736-3B27-36617A705C73uBio: 21646WoRMS: 1836ZooBank:
AAFCA22F-1980-4B62-9149-8887F1C1FDC1 Authority control Edit this at Wikidata National SpainFranceBnF dataGermanyIsraelUnited StatesLatviaJapanCzech Republic Other NARA Categories:
BirdsAnimal classesDinosaursExtant Late Cretaceous first
appearancesFeathered dinosaursSantonian first appearancesTaxa named by
Carl Linnaeus This is a list of well-known real birds. For famous fictional birds, see list of fictional birds. Águia Vitória, a bald eagle who serves as the mascot for Portuguese football club S.L. Benfica Alex,
a grey parrot who, in studies by Dr. Irene Pepperberg, demonstrated an
ability to count; differentiate categories involving objects, colors,
shapes, and materials; and understand the concept of same and different All Alone, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal, the animal equivalent of the Victoria Cross Andy, a goose born without feet who used sneakers to help him stand and walk. He was killed by an unnamed perpetrator in 1991. B95, a red knot known for being the oldest known member of his species Barry, a barred owl who lived in Central Park in New York City Beach Comber, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal Billy, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal Broad Arrow, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal Canuck, a northwestern crow who was voted Metro Vancouver's unofficial ambassador Challenger,
the first bald eagle in history trained to free fly into major sporting
events during the American national anthem[1] Charlie, a
blue-and-yellow macaw whose owner claimed she belonged to Winston
Churchill and had been taught to shout curses at Nazis Cher
Ami, British-bred homing pigeon who, in the autumn of 1918, delivered 12
messages for the U.S. Army during World War I, among other things
helping to save the Lost Battalion Cologne, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal Commando,
a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal, who carried
out more than ninety missions carrying intelligence for the British Cookie,
a Major Mitchell's cockatoo who at the time of his death at the age of
83, was recognized by Guinness World Records as the oldest living parrot
in the world Cosmo, a grey parrot known for knowing over 200 words and being the subject of a book, Conversations with Cosmo DD.43.Q.879, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal DD.43.T.139, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal Dick
the Mockingbird, a mockingbird belonging to Thomas Jefferson and
believed to be the first presidential pet to live in the White House Domino Day 2005 sparrow, a house sparrow who was shot and killed after disturbing preparations for Domino Day 2005 Douglas, a scarlet macaw who played the parrot Rosalinda in the 1970 film Pippi in the South Seas Duke of Normandy, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal Dutch Coast, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal Flaco, a Eurasian eagle-owl which escaped from the Central Park Zoo after its enclosure was vandalized in February 2023.[2] Flying Dutchman, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal Gertie
the Duck, a mallard duck who nested on some pilings under a bridge in
Milwaukee in 1945[3][4] She (and her brood) are immortalized in
RiverSculpture! G.I. Joe, a Second World War homing pigeon
awarded the Dickin Medal, a member of the United States Army Pigeon
Service. On 18 October 1943, the village of Calvi Vecchia, Italy was
scheduled to be bombed by the Allies. He carried the message that
British forces had captured the village, thus averting the attack and
saving the lives of over a thousand people, both the local Italians and
the British occupying troops. Goldie, a golden eagle who lived at the London Zoo in the 1960s and caused a sensation when he briefly escaped in 1965 Grape-kun, a Humboldt penguin living at the Tobu Zoo who became famous for his attachment to a cutout of an anime character Greater, a greater flamingo, the oldest flamingo on record, who died in 2014 at the Adelaide Zoo, aged at least 83 Grecia, the first toucan to receive a prosthetic beak Grip, a raven kept as a pet by Charles Dickens[5] Gustav, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal Herbie, a duck who became known in the 1970s after a clip of him skateboarding was shown on BBC news program Nationwide Incas,
the last Carolina parakeet, who died in 1918 at the Cincinnati Zoo,
reportedly of grief after his mate Lady Jane died a few months before
him, in 1917 Jimmy, a raven who appeared in more than 1,000
feature films from the 1930s through the 1950s, including It's a
Wonderful Life and The Wizard of Oz Joe, a pigeon found in
Australia believed to have flown there from Oregon. He was originally at
risk of being euthanized, but was ultimately pardoned after it was
found he likely came from Australia and did not pose a biosecurity risk. John Silver, a First World War homing pigeon known for receiving an eye patch and a wooden leg Kenley Lass, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal The King of Rome, a successful racing pigeon who set a long-distance pigeon racing record in England Klepetan and Malena, a pair of white storks renowned for their romantic endeavors Lady Baltimore, a bald eagle living at the Juneau Raptor Center Le Vaillant, a First World War homing pigeon used by the French Army Leaping
Lena, a West German racing pigeon who became lost in Czechoslovakia
during a routine flight in 1954 and returned bearing a note on her leg
with an anti-communist message Long Boi, an Indian
Runner-mallard duck cross and unofficial mascot of the University of
York who became famous due to his height (70 cm tall)[6] Louis, a parrot known for preventing development of his owner's estate from 1949 to 1966 Mandarin Patinkin (also known as Hot Duck), a mandarin duck which appeared in New York City's Central Park in 2018.[7] Mani,
a rose-ringed parakeet living in Singapore, who became famous in 2010
after correctly predicting the winners for all of the 2010 FIFA World
Cup quarter-final ties Manukura, the first white kiwi born in captivity Maquis, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal Mario,
a Toulouse goose, formerly living in Echo Park, Los Angeles, who became
the subject of news reports in 2011 after forming an unusual
association with a local resident Martha, the last of the
American passenger pigeons, who died at the Cincinnati Zoo in 1914.
Species Requiem Day, September 1, marks Martha's passing. Mary of Exeter, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal Matilda, the world's oldest known chicken Mercury, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal Mike
the Headless Chicken, a Wyandotte rooster of Fruita, Colorado, who
lived for 18 months after his head was cut off. The botched decapitation
in 1945 missed his brain stem and jugular vein. His owners fed him
thereafter with an eyedropper, and took him on tours of the West Coast.
He died in 1947. Monty and Rose, a pair of piping plovers who in 2019 were the first pair to successfully breed in Chicago in decades Mozart's starling, a common starling kept as a pet by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Navy Blue, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal Nils Olav, a king penguin, mascot and colonel-in-chief of the Norwegian King's Guard[8] N'kisi, a grey parrot known for her supposed advanced use of the English language NPS.42.NS.2780, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal NPS.42.NS.7524, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal NURP.38.BPC.6, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal NURP.43.CC.1418, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal Old
Abe, an American Civil War bald eagle who was the mascot of a Wisconsin
regiment, whose image was adopted in Case Corporation's logo and as the
screaming eagle on the insignia of the U.S. Army's 101st Airborne
Division Old Blue', a black robin who at one point was the only fertile female of the species Omid, the only Siberian crane that continues to return to Iran Paddy, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal Pag-asa, the first Philippine eagle to be bred and hatched in captivity Pale Male, a red-tailed hawk who lived near Central Park in New York City[9] Mr Percival, an Australian pelican and notable film actor Peter, a bald eagle who lived at the Philadelphia Mint during the 1830s Petra, a black swan who appeared to fall in love with a pedalo resembling a swan Petros, a pelican who became a mascot of the Greek island of Mykonos Pierre, an African penguin who became the first penguin to have bald spots restored Pink
Floyd, the name given to two separate flamingos who escaped from
captivity in the United States and lived in the wild for many years Princess, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal Ravachol Parrot, a parrot who lived in Pontevedra, Spain, from 1891 and 1913 and became a symbol of the city Royal Blue, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal Roy and Silo, a same-sex pair of chinstrap penguins who lived at the Central Park Zoo Rufus, a Harris's hawk used by the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club to keep pigeons away from their venue Ruhr Express, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal Mr Rutland, an osprey introduced to England after the species went extinct there in the 1840s Scotch Lass, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal Sirocco, a hand-reared kākāpō who became an ambassador for his species and conservation in New Zealand Snowball,
a male Eleonora cockatoo, noted as being the first non-human animal
conclusively demonstrated to be capable of beat induction Sparkie Williams, a talking budgerigar who provided the inspiration for an opera by Michael Nyman and Carsten Nicolai Tommy, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal Tyke, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal Victoria, the first goose to receive a prosthetic beak Whipper, a budgerigar known for its unusual appearance, caused by a genetic mutation White Vision, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal William of Orange, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal Winkie, a Second World War homing pigeon awarded the Dickin Medal Wisdom,
a wild female Laysan albatross. She is the oldest confirmed wild bird
in the world as well as the oldest banded bird in the world. Yaren, a stork known for its friendship with a fisherman living in Eskikaraağaç village of Bursa, Turkey Zelda, a wild turkey who lived at the Battery in New York City from 2003 to 2014 Zenobia, one of the last northern bald ibises in Syria See also The
cliff swallows, that return from Villa Ventana, Argentina every year to
the Mission San Juan Capistrano in California about March 19 The
Peabody Ducks of Memphis, Tennessee, which, in a tradition dating back
to the 1930s, are escorted from their penthouse palace down the elevator
every day of the year at 11:00 a.m., cross a red carpet to a Sousa
march, and spend the day in the lobby fountain, returning home with
equal ceremony at 5:00 p.m. The gulls, who saved the Mormon pioneers from a cricket infestation The gulls living at Japan's Kabushima Shrine, a place of worship, natural monument and popular tourist attraction The Hollywood Freeway chickens, a feral colony living under the Vineland Avenue off-ramp of the Hollywood Freeway in Los Angeles The ravens of the Tower of London, whose continuing presence there is said to maintain the general safety of the kingdom The Peace Bridge robins, a family of American robins that nested for several years on Peace Bridge in the 1930s References Moore,
Roger (November 3, 2007). "How much can one football fanbase take?".
Stillwater-newspress.com. Stillwater News Press. Archived from the
original on November 6, 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-03. Zraick,
Karen; McCarthy, Lauren (2023-02-04). "An Owl Named Flaco Is Loose in
Central Park, With Vandals to Blame". The New York Times. ISSN
0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-02-15. Gertie the Milwaukee Duck Archived 2010-06-15 at the Wayback Machine Gertie the Duck: Symbol of Hope Lane, Raymond M. (13 January 2012). "Charles Dickens bicentennial, and his link to Poe". Washington Post. "Tall duck becomes social media sensation". BBC News. Retrieved 2022-07-14. Jacobs,
Julia (2018-10-31). "A Mandarin Duck Mysteriously Appears in Central
Park, to Birders' Delight". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331.
Retrieved 2023-02-15. "Norwegian Knight". Scandinavian Press. Vol. 15, no. 4. Fall 2008. p. 9. Pale Male - the Central Park Red Tail Hawk vte Birds (class: Aves) Outline Anatomy BeakCrop milkDactylyEggsFeathersFlightPreen glandPlumageVision Behaviour SingingIntelligenceMigrationForagingSexual selectionLek matingSeabird breedingIncubationBrood parasitesNestingHybrids Evolution Origin of birds TheropodadinosaursOrigin of flightEvolution of birdsDarwin's finchesSeabirds Fossil birds ArchaeopteryxOmnivoropterygiformesConfuciusornithiformesEnantiornithesChaoyangiformesPatagopterygiformesAmbiortiformesSonglingornithiformesHongshanornithidaeGansuiformesIchthyornithiformesHesperornithesLithornithiformesDinornithiformesAepyornithiformesGastornithiformes Human interaction RingingOrnithologyOrnithomancyBird
collectionsBirdwatching big yearBird
feedingConservationAvicultureWaterfowl huntingCockfightingPigeon
racingFalconryPheasantryImpingEgg collecting Lists Families
and ordersGeneraGlossary of bird termsList by populationLists by
regionExtinct species since 1500Late Quaternary prehistoric birdsNotable
birds individualsfictional Neornithes Category Commons Portal WikiProject List of fictional birds Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools Page protected with pending changes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Fictional birds) This
list of fictional birds is subsidiary to the list of fictional animals.
Ducks, penguins and birds of prey are not included here, and are listed
separately at list of fictional ducks, list of fictional penguins, and
list of fictional birds of prey. For non-fictional birds see List of
individual birds. Struthioniformes (ostriches) Name Work Notes Big Eggo Big Eggo Madame Upanova The "Dance of the Hours" segment of Fantasia Hennie Hey Duggee Ossie The Tarax Show and Hey Hey It's Saturday Priscilla The Casagrandes Sergio's crush. Casuariformes (cassowaries and emu) Name Species Work Notes Emu Emu Emu Apterygiformes (kiwis) Name Work Notes Goodnight Kiwi Goodnight Kiwi Ivy Ivy the Kiwi? Anseriformes (waterfowl) See also List of fictional ducks and List of fictional ducks in animation Name Species Work Notes N/A Goose The Goose that Laid the Golden Eggs Alice and Chloe Canada geese Rio Gandy Goose Goose Donald Duck cartoons Gladstone Gander Goose Donald Duck cartoons Gus Goose Goose Donald Duck cartoons Louis Trumpeter swan The Trumpet of the Swan and the 2001 film of the same name Mother Goose Goose Mother Goose and Grimm Mr. Ping Goose Kung Fu Panda Syd 'Swannie' Skilton Mute swan Mascot of the Sydney Swans Wammes Waggel Goose Tom Poes Galliformes (landfowl) Name Species Work Notes Aracuan Bird East Brazilian chachalaca Walt Disney cartoons Billina Chicken Multiple Land of Oz books Booker Chicken U.S. Acres Chanticleer Chicken Rock-a-Doodle Chicken Chicken Cow and Chicken Chicken Boo Chicken Animaniacs A six-foot-tall chicken. Clara Cluck Chicken Walt Disney cartoons Cornelius Chicken Mascot of Kellogg's Corn Flakes Foghorn Leghorn Chicken Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies General Tsao Chicken Sly 3: Honor Among Thieves A Chinese general who forced the Panda King's daughter to marry him. Gobbler Turkey Beryl the Peril The pet of Beryl. Goldie Golden pheasant Rock-a-Doodle Gyro Gearloose Chicken Donald Duck cartoons Henny Penny Chicken Henny Penny More commonly known in the United States as Chicken Little. Leafie Chicken Leafie, A Hen into the Wild Lord Shen Indian peafowl Kung Fu Panda 2 A leucistic peacock. Marquis de Canteclaer Chicken Tom Poes Matilda Chicken Angry Birds Nugget Chicken Ace Combat Project ACES' mascot Panchito Pistoles Chicken The Three Caballeros Peep Chicken Peep and the Big Wide World Pickles Chicken Bionic Max Roy Chicken U.S. Acres Roya Indian peafowl Shimmer and Shine The pet of Princess Samira. Roz Specklehen Faverolles Shoe (comic strip) A waitress at Roz's Roost; serves breakfast to other birds around. Sheldon Chicken U.S. Acres An unhatched chicken egg. Super Chicken Chicken The Super Chicken segment of George of the Jungle Phoenicopteriformes (flamingos) Name Work Notes Freddy T.O.T.S. Isabel, Annabelle, and Maribelle the Flamingos 64 Zoo Lane Pinkster Wild Kratts Columbiformes (pigeons and doves) Name Species Work Notes Archimedes White dove Team Fortress 2 Bernice Pigeon Sesame Street Bert’s pet pigeon who does not know how to coo and do things that he and Ernie do Dab Dodo Ice Age Dodo Dodo Alice in Wonderland and the 1951 film by the same name Gogo Dodo Dodo Tiny Toon Adventures Gladys Pigeon Muppets from Space The Birdman’s pet pigeon and sweetheart The Goodfeathers (Squit, Bobby, and Pesto) Pigeons Animaniacs Homer Pigeon Pigeon Walter Lantz cartoons Lovey-Dove Pigeon Ghost Trick: Phantom Detective A blue pigeon who likes to sit on Pigeon Man's head Sancho Pigeon The Casagrandes A deformed pigeon who is Sergio's best friend. He has only one foot. Willow Western crowned pigeon Angry Birds Stella Yankee Doodle Pigeon Pigeon Dastardly and Muttley in their Flying Machines Cuculiformes (cuckoos and roadrunners) Name Species Work Notes Little Beeper Roadrunner Tiny Toon Adventures The Road Runner Roadrunner Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies Rowdy Roadrunner Mascot of the University of Texas at San Antonio Roadrunners Sonny the Cuckoo Bird Cuckoo Mascot of Cocoa Puffs Speed Limit Greater roadrunner Wild Kratts Caprimulgiformes (nightjars, hummingbirds, and swifts) Name Species Work Notes Flit Ruby-throated hummingbird Pocahontas and Pocahontas II: Journey to a New World Violet Sabrewing Violet sabrewing DuckTales (2017) Nyctibiidae (potoos) Name Species Work Notes Melody Common potoo Angry Birds 2 Introduced in 2022 Gruiformes (cranes, rails, and allies) Name Species Work Notes Cassandra the Crane Red-crowned crane 64 Zoo Lane Crazylegs Crane Crane The All New Pink Panther Show Master Crane Black-necked crane Kung Fu Panda Principal Secretary Crane Kiff Charadriiformes (gulls, terns, auks, and waders) Name Species Work Notes N/A Gull Gaston Lagaffe The aggressive seagull owned by Gaston Lagaffe. Garvey Gull Gull Donald Duck cartoons Gunnar the Seagull Black-headed gull 64 Zoo Lane Irving "Irv" Seagull Kelp Gull Shoe A local repairman at Irving Oil Corporation. Jonathan Livingston Seagull Lesser-black backed gull Jonathan Livingston Seagull and the 1973 film of the same name Numenia Whimbrel Numenia and the Hurricane Puffo, Mama Puffin, Puff, Finnster Atlantic puffins Wild Kratts Scuttle Gull The Little Mermaid Thomas, Sharon, Lewis and Jamie the Puffins Atlantic puffins 64 Zoo Lane Kehaar Black-headed gull Watership Down Gaviiformes (loons) Name Work Notes Becky Finding Dory Bomb Angry Birds Dave and Ping Pong Camp Lazlo Loon Shoe (comic strip) A newspaper/mail carrier and country guitar player. Shirley McLoon Tiny Toon Adventures Sphenisciformes (penguins) See List of fictional penguins Procellariiformes (albatrosses, shearwaters, petrels, and storm-petrels) Name Species Work Notes Orville Albatross The Rescuers Wilbur Albatross The Rescuers Down Under Ciconiiformes (storks) Name Species Work Notes Ava White Stork T.O.T.S. Bodhi White Stork T.O.T.S. J.P. White Stork T.O.T.S. Larrison White stork Camp Lazlo Mr. Stork White stork Dumbo and Lambert the Sheepish Lion Ollie White stork Alfred J. Kwak Seamus the Stork White stork 64 Zoo Lane Pelecaniformes (pelicans, herons, ibises, and allies) Name Species Work Notes Anabella Heron Doki Black Heron Black heron DuckTales (2017) Blue Beaky Great blue heron Wild Kratts Captain Candace Beakman American white pelican T.O.T.S. Gular Brown pelican Wild Kratts Kulinda and Ona Hamerkops The Lion Guard Mort Great white pelican Camp Lazlo Nigel Brown pelican Finding Nemo Ono Cattle egret The Lion Guard Pauline the Pelican Great white pelican 64 Zoo Lane Sebastian the Ibis White ibis Mascot of the Miami Hurricanes Seymore D. Fair American white pelican Mascot of the 1984 Louisiana World Exposition Cathartiformes (New World vultures) See List of fictional birds of prey Accipitriformes (hawks, eagles, and Old World vultures) See List of fictional birds of prey Strigiformes (owls) See List of fictional birds of prey Trogoniformes (trogons) Name Species Work Notes Burdette Resplendent quetzal It's a Big Big World Bucerotiformes (hornbills and hoopoes) Name Species Work Notes Zazu Southern red-billed hornbill The Lion King Coraciiformes (kingfishers, rollers, and bee-eaters) Name Species Work Notes Kiki Malachite kingfisher Robinson Crusoe Olly Laughing kookaburra One of the mascots of the 2000 Summer Olympics Piciformes (woodpeckers and toucans) Name Species Work Notes Eva Keel-billed toucan Rio Hal Emerald toucanet Angry Birds Headbanger Pileated woodpecker Wild Kratts Rafael Toco toucan Rio Tallulah the Toucan and Taco the Toucan Toco toucans 64 Zoo Lane Toucan Dan Toco toucan Timon & Pumbaa Toucan Sam Toucan Mascot of Froot Loops Mr. Woodbird Red-headed woodpecker T.O.T.S. Woody Woodpecker Woodpecker Walter Lantz cartoons The character resembles a pileated woodpecker, despite being inspired by an encounter with an acorn woodpecker. Falconiformes (falcons and caracaras) See List of fictional birds of prey Psittaciformes (parrots) Name Species Work Notes Abelardo Montoya Parrot Sésamo The Mexican counterpart of Big Bird. Ace Parakeet Powerbirds Andrea Parrot Kaj & Andrea A puppet from the Danish series Kaj & Andrea Arpeggio Yellow-faced parrot Sly 2: Band of Thieves The leader of the Klaww Gang who sought immortality and hoped to gain it by merging himself with the Clockwerk frame. Bia, Carla, and Tiago Spix's macaws Rio 2 Black Spot Pete Eclectus parrot Sly 3: Honor Among Thieves A pirate who stole Reme Lousteau's scuba diving gear. He later lost it to Captain LeFwee. Blu Spix's macaw Rio Full name Tyler Blu Gunderson. Captain Flint Festive amazon Treasure Island The pet of Long John Silver. Named after Captain Flint. Captain LeFwee Eclectus parrot Sly 3: Honor Among Thieves Despite
being identified as a male, his coloration coincides more with the
female of the species; a pirate known by many as the "smartest man on
the seven seas". Carrie the Cockatoo Sulphur-crested cockatoo 64 Zoo Lane Eduardo Spix's macaw Rio 2 Felipe Scarlet macaw Rio 2 Iago Scarlet macaw Aladdin The pet of Jafar. Jewel Spix's macaw Rio José Carioca Parrot The Three Caballeros Lory Lory Alice's Adventures in Wonderland Mak Scarlet macaw Robinson Crusoe Mark Beaks Gray parrot DuckTales (2017) Mimi Spix's macaw Rio 2 Mithu Rose-ringed parakeet Meena The pet of Meena. Nigel Sulphur-crested cockatoo Rio Pirate Parrot Parrot Mascot of the Pittsburgh Pirates Poco Loco Scarlet macaw Sesame Street An anthropomorphic parrot who appeared on Sesame Street in 1974 to 1980; appears with Big Bird in some sketches Polly Cockatoo Ace Attorney Yanni Yogi's pet parrot and witness in a murder trial Polly Parakeet Powerbirds Poppy Lutino cockatiel Angry Birds Stella Polynesia Parrot Dr. Dolittle Roberto Spix's macaw Rio 2 Rio Scarlet macaw One of the Rainforest Cafe mascots Sergio Scarlet macaw The Casagrandes One of the pets of the Casagrande family. Stella Galah Angry Birds Passeriformes (perching birds) Name Species Work Notes N/A Canary King-Size Canary A canary that grows to an enormous size after a cat pours growth formula on him. Alcor Raven Little Witch Academia The pet of Professor Ursula. Big Bird Canary Sesame Street DISPUTED: Big Bird's own Wikipedia article cites conflicting statements made on episodes of Sesame Street. Big Red Northern cardinal Mascot of the Arizona Cardinals BJ Birdie and Ace Blue jay Mascot of the Toronto Blue Jays Bubbles Oriole Angry Birds Chuck Canary Angry Birds Diablo Raven Sleeping Beauty Dolf Crow Alfred J. Kwak Fredbird Northern cardinal Mascot of the St. Louis Cardinals Gale Violet-backed starling Angry Birds Stella Grip Raven Barnaby Rudge Based on Grip, a raven kept as a pet by Charles Dickens. The inspiration for Edgar Allan Poe's "The Raven".[1] Heckle and Jeckle Yellow-billed magpies Terrytoons cartoons Henry Barn swallow Henry the Barn Swallow Hugin and Munin Ravens Norse mythology and fictional works based thereon, such as American Gods and Valhalla The two ravens of Odin. Jim, Jake, and Jay Eastern bluebirds Angry Birds Collectively known as The Blues. Luca California scrub jay Angry Birds Stella Margalo Canary Stuart Little Martin Jr. Purple martin Wild Kratts Matthew Raven Sandman Molly Mockingbird Northern mockingbird Texas State Bird Pageant Moo Brown-headed cowbird Wild Kratts Mordecai Blue jay Regular Show Moses the Raven Raven Animal Farm Nico Canary Rio Nyuni Western yellow wagtail The Lion Guard The Oriole Bird Baltimore oriole Mascot of the Baltimore Orioles Pedro Red-crested cardinal Rio Phobos and Deimos Crows Sailor Moon The pet crows of Rei Hino. Pikkie Eurasian magpie Alfred J. Kwak Poe Raven Mascot of the Baltimore Ravens Quoth Raven Discworld Red Northern cardinal Angry Birds Shoe Purple martin Shoe Full name P. Martin "Shoe" Shoemaker. Skyler Eurasian Skylark Shoe An overeducated but underachieving nephew Cosmo raises. Snipes Black-billed magpie Rock-a-Doodle Spike, Mama Shrike, Thorn, Spear, and Spike Jr. Loggerhead shrikes Wild Kratts Sweet Tweet Greater honeyguide Wild Kratts Tamaa Greater racket-tailed drongo The Lion Guard Terence Northern cardinal Angry Birds Thrash Brown thrasher Mascot of the Atlanta Thrashers Tic Tic Bird Red-billed oxpecker 64 Zoo Lane Tweety Canary Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies Walt Canary The Loud House One of the pets of the Loud family. William the Weaver Bird Southern masked weaver 64 Zoo Lane Mythical bird characters Name Type Work Notes Aya Shameimaru Crow tengu Touhou Project Fawkes Phoenix Harry Potter Unspecified birds The eponymous protagonists from Angry Birds Birdie the Early Bird from the McDonald's commercials Buzby, a yellow bird of unspecified species in advertisements for British Telecom in the late 1970s/early 1980s Harvey Beaks from the show of the same name. The Phillie Phanatic, the mascot of the Philadelphia Phillies Pino, the Dutch counterpart of Big Bird in Sesamstraat Wattoo Wattoo, an oval-shaped black and white bird in Wattoo Wattoo Super Bird Woodstock, a bird of unknown species in the Charles M. Schulz's Peanuts comic strip. Fictional bird species Chocobo, a bird in the Final Fantasy series Jayhawk, part "jay" and part "hawk" this bird is the mascot of the Kansas Jayhawks sports teams and has roots in Kansas lore The Jubjub Bird from Lewis Carroll's poem "Jabberwocky" Breegulls, of which Kazooie is one, from the Banjo-Kazooie series Loftwings, flying mountable birds based on shoebills featured in The Legend of Zelda: Skyward Sword Mockingjay, central bird that is part of the Hunger Games trilogy Porgs, a species of penguin or puffin-like birds that live on Ach-To in Star Wars: The Last Jedi The Roly-Poly Bird from Roald Dahl's children books The Enormous Crocodile and The Twits The Snip Snip Bird in 64 Zoo Lane Twitter Bird, the mascot of Twitter Weatherbird, the mascot of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch; identified as a dicky-bird, a generic term for a small bird. Humans transformed into birds The six brothers turned into birds in German fairytale The Six Swans The eleven siblings cursed by their queenly stepmother in The Wild Swans Princess Odette, a human with a curse that turns her into a swan during the day in The Swan Princess The Swan Maiden, a magical bird who turns into a beautiful woman in several folktales Willy, a boy-turned-sparrow and main character in Willy the Sparrow See also List of avian humanoids List of fictional birds of prey List of fictional dinosaurs List of fictional ducks List of fictional penguins List of legendary creatures by type § Birds References Hollington, Michael (30 October 2020). "Dickens, Grip and the Corvid Family". Caliban (64): 81–99. doi:10.4000/caliban.8761. vte Lists of fictional life forms Plants Plants Animals ArthropodsFishParasitesWorms Amphibians Frogs and toads animation Reptiles CrocodiliansDinosaursSnakesTurtles Birds Birds of preyDucks animationPenguins Mammals Canines AnimationComicsLiteratureDogs
prose and poetrycomicslive-action filmlive-action
televisionanimationanimated filmanimated televisionvideo
gamesFoxesWolves Felines AnimationComicsFilmLiteratureTelevisionBig cats animation Rodents AnimationComicsLiteratureVideo Games Non-human primates AnimationComicsFilmLiteratureTelevisionVideo games Ungulates AnimationHorsesLiteraturePachydermsPigs Miscellaneous BearsMarsupialsMusteloids animationBadgersRaccoonsPinnipedsRabbits and haresRhinogradentia Humanoids General ComicsFilmLiteratureTelevisionVideo games Specific AvianPiscine and AmphibianReptilian Other Alien species HumanoidsParasitesSymbionts Legendary By
typeDragons popular culturefilm and televisiongamesliteraturemythology
and folkloreEquines UnicornsWinged horsesWinged
unicornsGhostsGiantsHybridsMermaidsVampires by regionDhampirsWerewolves Theological Fictional angelsFictional demonsFictional deities Categories: Fictional birdsLists of fictional birdsLists of birds | | | |