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Número de artículo:176269159304Władysław Bartoszewski 1922-2015 autógrafo genuino firmado tarjeta 4x6 Polonia. [114] Following the armistice with Germany in November 1918, Poland regained its independence as the Second Polish Republic. [335] The University of Warsaw and Warsaw Polytechnic, the University of Wrocław, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań and the University of Technology in Gdańsk are among the most prominent.
Władysław Bartoszewski 1922-2015 genuine autograph signed 4"x6" card Poland. Righteous Among the Nations Bartoszewski, Wladyslaw
(b. 1922), A Pole who opposed the Nazis and helped Polish Jews during the
Holocaust.
Bartoszewski was held in Auschwitz from September 1940 to April 1941.
From 1942--1945 he was a member of the Polish Home Army, the
underground organization of young Catholics, and the Front for the Rebirth of
Poland. In September 1942 Bartoszewski helped establish a temporary
committee that later became ZEGOTA, the Polish Council for Aid to Jews. After
a permanent Zegota council was formed in December 1942, Bartoszewski
served as one of two delegates from the delegatura—the underground
representative of the Polish Government-in-exile active in Poland—who
regularly attended Zegota meetings. He was also an underground activist who
sent the London-based Polish government-in-exile reports on the atrocities
committed by the Nazis against the Poles and the Jews.
Bartoszewski was designated as Righteous Among the Nations by Yad
Vashem in 1963. He is both an historian and a writer who has published
several books. Most deal with the history of Warsaw during World War II, the
Jews of Poland, and the rescue of Jews by Polish non-Jews. A professor at
the Catholic University in Lublin, he also served as an ambassador and as
Foreign Minister of Poland. Władysław Bartoszewski was a Polish politician, social activist, journalist, writer and historian. A former Auschwitz concentration camp prisoner, he was a World War II resistance fighter as part of the Polish underground and participated in the Warsaw Uprising Władysław Bartoszewski ([vwaˈdɨswaf bartɔˈʂɛfskʲi] (listen); 19 February 1922 – 24 April 2015) was a Polish politician, social activist, journalist, writer and historian. A former Auschwitz concentration camp prisoner,[1] he was a World War II resistance fighter as part of the Polish underground and participated in the Warsaw Uprising. After the war he was persecuted and imprisoned by the communist Polish People's Republic due to his membership in the Home Army (Armia Krajowa, AK) and opposition activity.[2] After the collapse of the communist regime, Bartoszewski served twice as the Minister of Foreign Affairs from March through December 1995 and again from 2000 to 2001.[3] He was also an ambassador and a member of the Polish Senate. Bartoszewski was a close ally and friend of Polish anti-Communist activist and later president Lech Wałęsa.[4] Bartoszewski was a chevalier of the Order of the White Eagle, an honorary citizen of Israel, and a member of the International Honorary Council of the European Academy of Diplomacy.[1] Early life Bartoszewski was born in Warsaw to a Catholic family.[5] He studied at Saint Stanisław Kostka Secondary School.[5] In 1939 he graduated from The Humanist High School of the Roman Catholic Future Educational Society in Warsaw.[3] World War II In September 1939, Bartoszewski took part in the civil defense of Warsaw as a stretcher-bearer.[4] From May 1940, he worked in the first social clinic of the Polish Red Cross in Warsaw.[4] On 19 September 1940, Bartoszewski was detained in the Warsaw district of Żoliborz during a surprise round-up of members of the public (łapanka), along with some 2,000 civilians (among them, Witold Pilecki).[4][6] From 22 September 1940, he was detained in Auschwitz concentration camp (his inmate number was 4427). Due to actions undertaken by the Polish Red Cross, he was released from Auschwitz on 8 April 1941.[4] Polish Underground State The third anniversary of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, the official gathering at the Polish Theatre in Warsaw, April 1946. On stage, among others, the activists of Żegota. Bartoszewski is sitting on the third right After his release from Auschwitz, Bartoszewski contacted the Association of Armed Struggle (Związek Walki Zbrojnej). In the summer of 1941, he reported on his concentration camp imprisonment to the Information Department of the Information and Propaganda Bureau of the Home Army (Armia Krajowa, or AK, a reformed version of the Association of Armed Struggle and the largest resistance movement in Poland).[7] In 1942, he joined the Front for the Rebirth of Poland (Front Odrodzenia Polski), which was a secret, Catholic, social-educational and charity organization founded by Zofia Kossak-Szczucka.[7] From October 1941 until 1944, Bartoszewski studied Polish studies in the secret Humanist Department of Warsaw University. At this time, higher education of Poles was outlawed by the German occupational authorities.[7] In August 1942, Bartoszewski became a soldier of the Home Army, working as a reporter in the "P" Subdivision of the Information Department of its Information and Propaganda Bureau.[2] His pseudonym "Teofil" was inspired by Teofil Grodzicki, a fictional character from Jan Parandowski's novel entitled The Sky in Flames. He cooperated with Kazimierz Moczarski in the two-man P-1 report of the "P" subdivision.[7] From September 1942, Bartoszewski was active on behalf of the Front for the Rebirth of Poland in the Provisional Committee for Aid to Jews and its successor organization, the Council for Aid to Jews (codenamed Żegota). Żegota, a Polish World War II resistance organization whose objective was to help Jews during the Holocaust, operated under the auspices of the Polish Government in Exile through the Delegatura, its presence in Warsaw.[5] He remained a member of Żegota until the Warsaw Uprising. In 1943, he replaced Witold Bieńkowski in the Jewish Department of the Delegatura.[8] From November 1942 to September 1943, Bartoszewski was an editorial team secretary of the Catholic magazine Prawda (The Truth), the press organ of the Front for the Rebirth of Poland.[5] From fall of 1942 until spring of 1944, Bartoszewski was the editor-in-chief of the Catholic magazine Prawda Młodych (The Youth's Truth), which was also connected with the Front for the Rebirth of Poland and aimed at university and high-school students. In November 1942, Bartoszewski became a vice-manager of a division created in the Department of Internal Affairs of the Delegatura, whose remit was to help prisoners of Pawiak prison.[7] In February 1943, Bartoszewski became a reporter and vice-manager of the Department's Jewish Report. As a part of his activities for Żegota and the Jewish Report, he organized assistance for the participants of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in April 1943.[5] On 1 August 1944, Bartoszewski began his participation in the Warsaw Uprising.[7] He was an aide to the commander of radio post "Asma" and editor-in-chief of the magazine The News from the City and The Radio News.[7] On 20 September, by orders from the commandant of the Warsaw District of the AK, General Antoni "Monter" Chruściel, Bartoszewski was decorated with the Silver Cross of Merit.[5] This was the result of a proposal put forward by the chief of the Information and Propaganda Bureau in General Headquarters of the Home Army, Colonel Jan Rzepecki). On 1 October, he was appointed Second Lieutenant by the AK commander general Tadeusz "Bór" Komorowski (also due to a proposal by Rzepecki). He received the Cross of Valor order on 4 October.[7] Post-World War II Bartoszewski left Warsaw on 7 October 1944.[2] He continued his underground activity in the Information and Propaganda Bureau of the Home Army at its General Headquarters in Kraków. From November 1944 to January 1945, he held a position as editorial team secretary for Information Bulletin.[2] At the end of February 1945, he returned to Warsaw, where he began his service in the information and propaganda section of NIE resistance movement.[3] From May to August 1945, Bartoszewski was serving in the sixth unit of the Delegatura (he was responsible for information and propaganda) under the supervision of Kazimierz Moczarski). On 10 October 1945, he revealed that he had served in the AK.[4] In Autumn 1945, Bartoszewski started his cooperation with the Institute of National Remembrance at the presidium of the government and the Head Commission of Examination of German Crimes in Poland.[4] His information gathered during the occupation period about the Nazi crimes, the situation in concentration camps and prisons, as well as his knowledge concerning the Jewish genocide, appeared to be very helpful.[3] In February 1946 he began his work in the editorial section of Gazeta Ludowa (People's Gazette), the main press organ of the Polish People's Party (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe, PSL). Soon, he joined the PSL, at that time the only influential party in opposition to the communist government.[4] In the articles published in Gazeta Ludowa, he mentioned the outstanding figures of the Polish Underground State (the interview with Stefan Korboński, the report from the funeral of Jan Piekałkiewicz), and the events connected with the fight for liberation of the country (a series of sketches presenting the Warsaw Uprising entitled Dzień Walczącej Stolicy).[4] Due to his collaboration with the PSL, Bartoszewski became subject to repressions by the security services. On 15 November 1946, he was falsely accused of being a spy, resulting in him being arrested and held by the Ministry of Public Security of Poland.[4] In December, he was transferred to the Mokotów Prison; he was released on 10 April 1948, with the help of Zofia Rudnicka (a former chief of Żegota, then working in the Ministry of Justice).[3] Although Bartoszewski was accepted into the third year of Polish Studies in December 1948, his arrest in 1949 and the resulting five years' imprisonment rendered him unable to finish his studies.[4] Bartoszewski was again arrested on 14 December 1949.[2] On 29 May 1952, he was sentenced by the Military District Court to eight years in prison due to the false charge of espionage.[4] In April 1954, he was moved to the prison in Rawicz and in June to the prison in Racibórz. He was released in August 1954 on a year's parole due to his bad health condition.[2] On 2 March 1955, during the wave of de-Stalinization, Bartoszewski was informed he was wrongly sentenced.[2][4] Career Literary, academic and journalistic activity After Bartoszewski was found wrongly sentenced and released from prison, he returned to his journalistic activity. Since August 1955, he was the editor-in-chief of specialist publishing houses of the Polish Librarians Association.[9] Since July 1956, he was publishing his articles in Stolica weekly, and since January 1957 he was a member of an editorial section. From the Summer of 1958 to December 1960, he held the position of the secretary of the editorial section.[9] In August 1957, Bartoszewski began working with Tygodnik Powszechny (Universal Weekly). Since July 1982, he was a member of the editorial section.[4] In November 1958, Bartoszewski was again accepted by the Linguistic Department of Warsaw University, in extramural mode. He submitted his master's thesis written under the supervision of professor Julian Krzyżanowski.[10] However, by decision of the vice-chancellor, he was expelled from the university in October 1962.[9] On 18 April 1963, Bartoszewski was decorated with the Polonia Restituta medal for his help to the Jews during the war.[9] The proposal was put forward by the Jewish Historical Institute.[9] Between September and November 1963, he resided in Israel at the invitation of the Yad Vashem Institute. In the name of the Council for Aid to Jews, he received the diploma of the Righteous Among the Nations. In 1966, he received the medal of the Righteous Among the Nations.[11] In memoriam, former Israeli Ambassador Govrin will later write: "Władysław Bartoszewski will always be remembered as an individual who greatly contributed to the strengthening of Polish-Israeli ties, well before diplomatic ties were renewed and well after.[12] From November to December 1963, Bartoszewski lived in Austria, where he entered into communication with Austrian intellectual and political societies.[10] In November 1963, he began his cooperation with Radio Free Europe.[4] In the next years, he was traveling to the Federal Republic of Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Israel and the United States, where he got in touch mainly with some of the representatives of Polish emigration (among others with Jan Nowak-Jeziorański, Jan Karski, Czesław Miłosz and Gustaw Herling-Grudziński).[9] In 1969–73, Bartoszewski served as the chairman of the Warsaw Department of the Society of Book Lovers (Towarzystwo Przyjaciół Książki) and in December 1969 he was appointed a member of the board of the Polish PEN.[3] From 1972 to 1983, he served as the chief secretary of the Polish PEN.[3] In 1973–82, and again in 1984–85, Bartoszewski lectured as a senior lecturer (the counterpart of vice-professor).[3] His lectures concerned modern history (with the special emphasis on the war and occupation) in the Institute of Modern History on the Humanistic Science Department of KUL (Catholic University of Lublin). In December 1981, he was an active participant in the First Polish Culture Congress, which was interrupted by the enforcement of martial law in Poland.[3] In 1983–1984 and 1986–1988, Bartoszewski lectured at the Institute of Political Science Faculty of Social Sciences at the Ludwig-Maximilian University in Munich (as well as the Media Science Institute at the same university in 1989–90).[3] He was named Visiting Professor by the Bavarian government. In 1984, he received an honorary doctorate from Hebrew College in Baltimore (USA) as well as a certificate of the recognition from the American Jewish Committee in New York.[3] From May 1984, Bartoszewski was a full member of the Józef Piłsudski Institute of America.[11] From 1986 he served as one of the deputy-chairmen at the Institute of Polish-Jewish Studies at the University of Oxford. In the academic year 1985 he was lecturing at the Faculty of History and Social Sciences at the Catholic University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt in the Federal Republic of Germany.[3] From 1988 to 1989, he lectured at the Institute of Political Science in the Department of Philosophy and Social Sciences at the University of Augsburg.[4] In 1992 he was appointed a member of the Independent Commission of Experts (ICE) 1992–2002 which was set up by the Swiss parliament to examine the refugee policy of the Switzerland during World War II as well as economic and financial relationships between Switzerland and Nazi Germany.[3] Bartoszewski took part in many international conferences and seminars dedicated to the issues of World War II, the Jewish genocide, Polish-German and Polish-Jewish relationships as well as the role of Polish intellectualists in politics.[11] He delivered a number of lectures and reports on the various international forums.[9] Opposition activity In 1970, due to his opposition activity and various relations in Western countries, Bartoszewski was forbidden to publish his works in Poland (until autumn 1974).[1] He also fell victim to searches, denials of passport and distributing forgeries).[9] In 1974, he was engaged in activity focusing on reprieving the convicted members of the Ruch [pl] organization (among others Stefan Niesiołowski and Andrzej Czuma). In January 1976, as one of the first, Bartoszewski signed the letter of intellectualists protesting against the introduction of changes into the constitution of the People's Republic of Poland.[11] He helped establish the Society for Educational Courses and he lectured at the "Flying University".[9] On 21 August 1980, Bartoszewski signed the intellectuals' letter to the protesting workers from the Polish coast.[4] During 1980/1981 he was a member of Solidarity.[9] After announcing martial law on 13 December 1981, he was a detainee in Białołęka prison and later in the Internment Center in Jaworze at Drawsko Pomorskie Military Training Area. He was released on 28 April 1982 due to the support from intellectual communities from Poland and from abroad.[1] In 1981, Edward Raczyński, the President of Poland in exile, proposed Bartoszewski as his successor so Bartoszewski could become president in exile after his resignation.[9] Raczyński, according to his own words, wanted someone from the country and not the emigre circles as well as with strong ties to the opposition in Poland. Bartoszewski, however, graciously refused. In 1987 Raczyński's final successor, Kazimierz Sabbat, also proposed Batoszewski be nominated, but he declined.[4] Had he accepted the position, he would have succeeded Sabbat after his sudden death in 1989.[13] Third Republic of Poland Diplomatic and politic activity From September 1990 to March 1995, Bartoszewski held the position of Ambassador of the Polish Republic to Austria.[11] On 28 April 1995, he delivered a speech during the solemn joint session of the Bundestag and Bundesrat on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the ending of World War II as the only foreign speaker. On 22 December 1995, he resigned from his office due to the end of Lech Wałęsa's presidential term.[1] Once again, Bartoszewski became chief of Polish Internal Affairs in June 2000 in Jerzy Buzek's government.[1] From 1997 to 2001, he was the Senator of the fourth term and the chairperson in the Office for International Affairs and European Integration. As a Senior Speaker he chaired the inaugural session of the Senate of the Republic of Poland.[11] On 21 November 2007, Bartoszewski was named Secretary of State in the Office of the Chairman of the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister Donald Tusk) and plenipotentiary for international affairs.[11] Social and academic activity Bartoszewski (right, background) with Bronisław Geremek (left, background), 1997 From June 1990, Bartoszewski was chairperson of the International Council of the National Auschwitz Museum.[4] From 1991 to 1995, he was the member of the National Council for Polish-Jewish Relations from the presidential office. From March 1995, he was the deputy chairman of the Polish PEN. In 1996, he received an honorary doctorate of the University of Wrocław.[11] Starting in June 2001, Bartoszewski was the leader of the Council for the Protection of Memory of Combat and Martyrdom. On 27 January 2005, on the occasion of the 60th anniversary of the liberation of the concentration camp Auschwitz-Birkenau, he delivered speeches as the representative of the Polish inmates of concentration camps.[4][11] For many years he was a strong supporter of the Polish-Jewish and Polish-German reconciliation.[11] Through his journalistic and academic activity he contributed to retaining the memory of the Polish Underground State, the Warsaw Uprising and the crimes of totalitarism.[4] From 26 January to 29 June 2006, Bartoszewski headed the board of LOT Polish Airlines.[11] He was a member of the Polish Writers' Association. He was also chairperson of the Polish Institute of International Affairs in Warsaw, but resigned from the position on 29 August 2006.[11] The reason was that there was no reaction from then-Minister of Foreign Affairs Anna Fotyga to the accusations formulated by deputy Minister of Defense Antoni Macierewicz who alleged that most of hitherto Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the Third Republic of Poland were former agents of the Soviet special services according to files known as "fałszywkas" produced by the SB secret police.[4][14] Bartoszewski's scholarly credentials were controversial. He had no university degree but used the title of "professor", suggesting that he had an academic degree.[4] After objections from the German and Polish academic communities, the German Ministry of Foreign Affairs removed the title of "professor" before Bartoszewski's name from its web page.[15] Despite his lack of formal academic qualifications, Bartoszewski taught graduate-level history courses at several accredited and prestigious universities, including the renowned KUL (John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin), which lists Bartoszewski as a reader in modern history (and chair of Polish Postwar History) in the Faculty of Humanities, 1973–1985, and awarded him an honorary doctorate in 2008.[16] From April 2009 he was a council member of the Auschwitz-Birkenau Foundation.[11] In July 2010 he became a member of the International Council of the Austrian Service Abroad.[11] At a joint conference of the Polish Institute of International Affairs (PISM) and the Israel Council on Foreign Relations (ICFR) held in Warsaw in November 2017, ICFR director Laurence Weinbaum paid tribute to Bartoszewski and said he had played an important role in developing relations between Poland and Israel: "At a time when in certain quarters we are witness to shameless opportunism and the grotesque obfuscation of history, his legacy resonates especially strongly. Bartoszewski taught people that bellicose jingoism and intolerance should not be confused with the true love of one's country and that a society that gives way to its basest instincts is doomed to ruin."[17] Personal life Władysław Bartoszewski was first married to Antonina Mijal, but that marriage ended in divorce.[10] He later married Zofia Bartoszewska in 1967; they remained married until his death in 2015.[10] His son, Władysław Teofil Bartoszewski, was born in 1955.[10] He is an academic historian who has written on Polish Jewish history. He is the author of the 1991 book, The Convent at Auschwitz, George Braziller, ISBN 0-8076-1267-7.[10] On 24 April 2015, Bartoszewski was admitted to a Warsaw hospital, dying shortly after arrival of a heart attack, aged 93.[18][19] Flags at the parliament were lowered to half-staff in Bartoszewski's honor. Bartoszewski was survived by wife Zofia and son Władysław Teofil.[3] Bartoszewski's funeral was on 4 May and was buried at Powązki Military Cemetery.[20] Publications English 1968 Warsaw Death Ring: 1939–1944, Interpres. 1969 Righteous Among Nations: How Poles Helped the Jews 1939–1945, ed. with Zofia Lewin, Earlscourt Pub, UK;, ISBN 0-333-42378-X. 1970 The Samaritans: Heroes of the Holocaust, ed. with Zofia Lewin, Twayne Publishers, New York. 1988 The Warsaw Ghetto: A Christian's Testimony, Beacon Press; ISBN 0-8070-5602-2. 1991 The Jews in Warsaw: A History, ed. with Antony Polonsky, Blackwell Publishing; ISBN 1-55786-213-3. Polish Konspiracyjne Varsaviana poetyckie 1939–1944: zarys informacyjny (Warszawa 1962) Organizacja małego sabotażu "Wawer" w Warszawie (1940–1944) (1966) Ten jest z Ojczyzny mojej. Polacy z pomocą Żydom 1939–1945 (oprac. wspólnie z Zofią Lewinówną; Znak 1967, 1969) Warszawski pierścień śmierci 1939–1944 (1967, 1970; ponadto wydania w języku angielskim 1968 i niemieckim 1970) Kronika wydarzeń w Warszawie 1939–1949 (oprac.; wespół z Bogdanem Brzezińskim i Leszkiem Moczulskim; Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe 1970) Ludność cywilna w Powstaniu Warszawskim. Prasa, druki ulotne i inne publikacje powstańcze t. I-III (oprac.; praca zbiorowa; Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy 1974) 1859 dni Warszawy (introduction by Aleksander Gieysztor; bibliography of W. Bartoszewski by Zofia Steczowicz-Sajderowa; index by Zofia Bartoszewska; Znak 1974; 2nd edition expanded: 1984, ISBN 83-7006-152-4) Polskie Państwo Podziemne (inauguracyjny wykład TKN wygłoszony w Warszawie 2 XI 1979; II obieg; Niezależna Oficyna Wydawnicza NOWa 1979, 1980; OW "Solidarność" MKZ, Wrocław 1981; Komitet Wyzwolenia Społecznego 1981; Agencja Informacyjna Solidarności Walczącej, Lublin 1985) Los Żydów Warszawy 1939–1943. W czterdziestą rocznicę powstania w getcie warszawskim (Puls, Londyn 1983; Bez Cięć 1985 [II obieg]; Międzyzakładowa Struktura "Solidarności" 1985 [II obieg]; wydanie 2 poprawione i rozszerzone: Puls 1988, ISBN 0-907587-38-0; Fakt, Łódź 1989 [II obieg]) Jesień nadziei: warto być przyzwoitym (II obieg; tł. z wydania zach.-niem.; posłowie Reinholda Lehmanna; [Lublin]: Spotkania 1984, 1986) Dni walczącej stolicy. Kronika Powstania Warszawskiego (Aneks, Londyn 1984; Krąg, Warszawa 1984 [II obieg]; Alfa 1989, ISBN 83-7001-283-3; Świat Książki 2004, ISBN 83-7391-679-2) Metody i praktyki Bezpieki w pierwszym dziesięcioleciu PRL (pod pseud. Jan Kowalski; II obieg; Grupy Polityczne "Wola", Ogólnopolski Komitet Oporu Robotników "Solidarność" 1985; Biuletyn Łódzki 1985; Apel 1986; Rota 1986) Syndykat zbrodni (pod pseudonimem "ZZZ"; 1986) Na drodze do niepodległości (Editions Spotkania, Paryż 1987, OCLC 21299072) Warto być przyzwoitym. szkic do pamiętnika (II obieg; CDN 1988) Warto być przyzwoitym. Teksty osobiste i nieosobiste (Polskie tłumaczenie książki pt.: Herbst der Hoffnungen: es lohnt sich, anständig zu sein; Wydawnictwo Polskiej Prowincji Dominikanów W drodze 1990, ISBN 83-7033-104-1; wydanie 2 zmienione: 2005, ISBN 83-7033-545-4) Ponad podziałami. Wybrane przemówienia i wywiady – lipiec-grudzień 2000 (Ministerstwo Spraw Zagranicznych 2001, ISBN 83-907665-7-4) Wspólna europejska odpowiedzialność. Wybrane przemówienia i wywiady, styczeń-lipiec 2001 (Ministerstwo Spraw Zagranicznych 2001, ISBN 83-915698-1-0) Moja Jerozolima, mój Izrael. Władysław Bartoszewski w rozmowie z Joanną Szwedowską (posłowie: Andrzej Paczkowski; Rosner i Wspólnicy 2005, ISBN 83-89217-66-X) Władysław Bartoszewski: wywiad-rzeka (rozmowy z Michałem Komarem; Świat Książki 2006, ISBN 83-247-0441-8) Dziennik z internowania. Jaworze 15 December 1981 – 19 April 1982 (Świat Książki 2006) Pisma wybrane 1942–1957, Tom I (Universitas 2007, ISBN 978-83-242-0698-8) German Die polnische Untergrundpresse in den Jahren 1939 bis 1945 (Druckerei und Verlagsanstalt, Konstanz 1967) Das Warschauer Ghetto wie es wirklich war. Zeugenbericht eines Christen (1983; also American and English edition) Herbst der Hoffnungen: Es lohnt sich, anständig zu sein (Herder 1983; ISBN 3-451-19958-0; 1984, ISBN 3-451-19958-0; 1986, ISBN 3-451-19958-0) Aus der Geschichte lernen? Aufsätze und Reden zur Kriegs- und Nachkriegsgeschichte Polens (foreword: Stanisław Lem; Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, Munich 1986) Uns eint vergossenes Blut. Juden und Polen in der Zeit der Endlösung (1987) Polen und Juden in der Zeit der "Endlösung" (Informationszentrum im Dienste der christlich-jüdischen Verständigung, Wien 1990; ISBN 0-919581-32-3) Kein Frieden ohne Freiheit. Betrachtungen eines Zeitzeugen am Ende des Jahrhunderts (2000) Und reiß uns den Hass aus der Seele (Deutsch-Polnischer Verlag 2005; ISBN 83-86653-18-3) Awards and honors 1944: Silver Cross of Merit with Swords and the Cross of Valor[21] 1963: Knight's Cross of the Polonia Restituta[21] 1965: Righteous Among the Nations[21] 1981: Honorary doctorate from the University of London[21] 1983: Herder Prize, Vienna[21] 1984: Honorary doctorate from the University of Baltimore[21] 1986: Peace Prize of the German Book Trade[21] 1986: Commander's Cross with Star of the Polonia Restituta 1992: Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art, 1st class[22] 1995: Knight of the Order of the White Eagle[21] 1995: Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold with Sash for Services to the Republic of Austria (Großes Goldenes Ehrenzeichen am Bande)[23] 1996: Heinrich Heine Prize of the city of Düsseldorf[24] 1997: Grand Cross with Star of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany[21] 2001: Grand Cross of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany – "For work of reconciliation between Poles, Germans and Jews"[21] 2006: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St. Gregory the Great (Holy See; the highest papal award given to lay people)[21] 2006: Knight of Freedom Award[21] 2007: Jan Nowak-Jezioranski Prize of the Embassy of the USA[25] June 2007: International Adalbert Prize in Bratislava[21] 2008: Prize of €15,000 – first European Civil Rights Prize of the Sinti and Roma[21] 2009: Commander of the Legion of Honor (France)[21] 2009: "Bene Merito" honorary distinction (Poland) 2012: Order of the White Double Cross, 2nd class[21] 2013: Elie Wiesel Award[26] 2015: Honorary citizen of Israel[27] WLADYSLAW BARTOSZEWSKIPOLAND Warsaw, Poland… 1941 – Wladyslaw Bartoszewski was seventeen in 1939 when the Germans invaded Poland. He participated in the defense of Warsaw and was arrested on September 19, 1940, and sent to Auschwitz. Released in 1941, he joined the Polish underground known as the Home Army or the AK. He also belonged to the Catholic underground organization Front for the Rebirth of Poland. Wladyslaw Bartoszewski was chosen as a member of the Delegatura, the representative body in Poland of the Polish government-in-exile. As a member of the Delegatura, Wladyslaw Bartoszewski was a leader of Zegota, the Council for the Aid to Jews. Zegota was responsible for saving several thousand Jews and, according to one estimate, 40,000 to 50,000 Jews benefited in some way from its activities. Bartoszewski worked for the freedom of the Jews as well as Poles. From August 1 until October 2, 1944, he participated in the Warsaw Uprising. He was then a member of the Bureau for Information and Propaganda of the Central Headquarters of the Home Army. Wladyslaw Bartoszewski transmitted reports on Nazi terror and the situation of the Jews to the Polish government-in-exile. Following the war, Bartoszewski was imprisoned by the Polish government for eight years (1946 to 1954). In 1965 he was recognized as a Righteous Among the Nations by Yad Vashem, making him one of the first non-Jews recognized by the State of Israel. He served as Poland’s ambassador to Austria from 1990 to 1995 and also served as Poland’s Minister of Foreign Affairs. In 1990 he was appointed Chairman of the International Council of the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum. Wladyslaw Bartoszewski passed away in 2014. The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum mourns the passing of our longtime friend and partner Władysław Bartoszewski. His heroic actions during the occupation of Poland by Nazi Germany serve as an inspiration to Poles and people worldwide. Mr. Bartoszewski was imprisoned in Auschwitz soon after the German occupation. After his release, he played leading roles in the Polish resistance and with Zegota, the Council for Aid to the Jews, which helped thousands of Jews when doing so was punishable by death. After the war, Mr. Bartoszewski spoke out against the Communist regime, for which he was again imprisoned. He wrote several important historical books about the German occupation of Poland and the fate of Jews. After the fall of communism, he served twice as Poland’s foreign minister. In recent decades, Mr. Bartoszewski chaired the International Auschwitz Council, an advisory body to the Polish prime minister, which is responsible for overseeing the site of the camp. He was a leader of Polish-Jewish reconciliation, earning great respect in Poland, Europe, and the wider world. In 2013, on the occasion of the Museum's 20th anniversary, he was given the institution's highest honor, the Elie Wiesel Award, in recognition of his exceptional courage and leadership, during and after the Holocaust. He leaves an exceptional legacy that shall not be forgotten. Poland,[c] officially the Republic of Poland,[d] is a country in Central Europe. It is divided into 16 administrative provinces called voivodeships, covering an area of 312,696 km2 (120,733 sq mi). Poland has a population of 38 million and is the fifth-most populous member state of the European Union. Warsaw is the nation's capital and largest metropolis. Other major cities include Kraków, Wrocław, Łódź, Poznań, Gdańsk, and Szczecin. Poland has a temperate transitional climate and its territory traverses the Central European Plain, extending from Baltic Sea in the north to Sudeten and Carpathian Mountains in the south. The longest Polish river is the Vistula, and Poland's highest point is Mount Rysy, situated in the Tatra mountain range of the Carpathians. The country is bordered by Lithuania and Russia to the northeast,[e] Belarus and Ukraine to the east, Slovakia and the Czech Republic to the south, and Germany to the west. It also shares maritime boundaries with Denmark and Sweden. The history of human activity on Polish soil dates to circa 10,000 BC. Culturally diverse throughout late antiquity, the region became inhabited by tribal Polans who gave Poland its name in the early medieval period. The establishment of statehood in 966 coincided with a pagan ruler of the Polans converting to Christianity under the auspices of the Roman Church. The Kingdom of Poland emerged in 1025 and in 1569 cemented its longstanding association with Lithuania, thus forming the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was one of the largest great powers of Europe at the time, with a uniquely liberal political system that adopted Europe's first modern constitution in 1791. With the passing of a prosperous Polish Golden Age, the country was partitioned by neighbouring states at the end of the 18th century and regained its independence in 1918 as the Second Polish Republic. In September 1939, the German-Soviet invasion of Poland marked the beginning of World War II, which resulted in the Holocaust and millions of Polish casualties. As a member of the Communist Bloc in the global Cold War, the Polish People's Republic was a founding signatory of the Warsaw Pact. Through the emergence and contributions of the Solidarity movement, the communist government was dissolved and Poland re-established itself as a democratic state in 1989. Poland is a parliamentary republic, with its bicameral legislature comprising the Sejm and the Senate. It is a developed market and a high income economy. Considered a middle power, Poland has the sixth largest economy in the European Union by GDP (nominal) and the fifth largest by GDP (PPP). It provides high standards of living, safety and economic freedom, as well as free university education and a universal health care system. The country has 17 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, 15 of which are cultural. Poland is a founding member state of the United Nations, as well as a member of the World Trade Organization, NATO, and the European Union (including the Schengen Area). Etymology Main article: Names of Poland The native Polish name for Poland is Polska.[12] The name is derived from the Polans, a West Slavic tribe who inhabited the Warta River basin of present-day Greater Poland region (6th–8th century CE).[13] The tribe's name stems from the Proto-Slavic noun pole meaning field, which in-itself originates from the Proto-Indo-European word *pleh₂- indicating flatland.[14] The etymology alludes to the topography of the region and the flat landscape of Greater Poland.[15][16] The English name Poland was formed in the 1560s, from German Pole(n) and the suffix -land, denoting a people or nation.[17][18] Prior to its adoption, the Latin form Polonia was widely used throughout medieval Europe.[19] The country's alternative archaic name is Lechia and its root syllable remains in official use in several languages, notably Hungarian, Lithuanian, and Persian.[20] The exonym possibly derives from either Lech, a legendary ruler of the Lechites, or from the Lendians, a West Slavic tribe that dwelt on the south-easternmost edge of present-day Lesser Poland region.[21][22] The origin of the tribe's name lies in the Old Polish word lęda (plain).[23] Initially, both names Lechia and Polonia were used interchangeably when referring to Poland by chroniclers during the Middle Ages.[24] History Main article: History of Poland Prehistory and protohistory Main articles: Bronze- and Iron-Age Poland, Poland in Antiquity, Early Slavs, West Slavs, Lechites, and Poland in the Early Middle Ages A reconstruction of a Bronze Age, Lusatian culture settlement in Biskupin, 8th century BC The first Stone Age archaic humans and Homo erectus species settled what was to become Poland approximately 500,000 years ago, though the ensuing hostile climate prevented early humans from founding more permanent encampments.[25] The arrival of Homo sapiens and anatomically modern humans coincided with the climatic discontinuity at the end of the Last Glacial Period (10,000 BC), when Poland became habitable.[26] Neolithic excavations indicated broad-ranging development in that era; the earliest evidence of European cheesemaking (5500 BC) was discovered in Polish Kuyavia,[27] and the Bronocice pot is incised with the earliest known depiction of what may be a wheeled vehicle (3400 BC).[28] The period spanning the Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age (1300 BC–500 BC) was marked by an increase in population density, establishment of palisaded settlements (gords) and the expansion of Lusatian culture.[29][30] A significant archaeological find from the protohistory of Poland is a fortified settlement at Biskupin, attributed to the Lusatian culture of the Late Bronze Age (mid-8th century BC).[31] Throughout antiquity (400 BC–500 AD), many distinct ancient populations inhabited the territory of present-day Poland, notably Celtic, Scythian, Germanic, Sarmatian, Baltic and Slavic tribes.[32] Furthermore, archaeological findings confirmed the presence of Roman Legions sent to protect the amber trade.[33] The Polish tribes emerged following the second wave of the Migration Period around the 6th century AD;[19] they were Slavic and possibly may have included assimilated remnants of peoples that earlier dwelled in the area.[34][35] Beginning in the early 10th century, the Polans would come to dominate other Lechitic tribes in the region, initially forming a tribal federation and later a centralised monarchial state.[36] Kingdom of Poland Main articles: History of Poland during the Piast dynasty, History of Poland during the Jagiellonian dynasty, Christianization of Poland, and Kingdom of Poland Poland under the rule of Mieszko I, whose acceptance of Christianity under the auspices of the Roman Church and the Baptism of Poland marked the beginning of statehood in 966. Poland began to form into a recognisable unitary and territorial entity around the middle of the 10th century under the Piast dynasty.[37] In 966, ruler of the Polans Mieszko I accepted Christianity under the auspices of the Roman Church with the Baptism of Poland.[38] An incipit titled Dagome iudex first defined Poland's geographical boundaries with its capital and bishopric at Gniezno, and affirmed that its monarchy was under the protection of the Apostolic See.[39] The country's early origins were described by Gallus Anonymus in Gesta principum Polonorum, the oldest Polish chronicle.[40] An important national event of the period was the martyrdom of Saint Adalbert, who was killed by Prussian pagans in 997 and whose remains were reputedly bought back for their weight in gold by Mieszko's successor, Bolesław I the Brave.[39] In 1000, at the Congress of Gniezno, Bolesław obtained the right of investiture from Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor, who assented to the creation of additional bishoprics.[39] Three new dioceses were subsequently established in Kraków, Kołobrzeg, and Wrocław.[41] Also, Otto bestowed upon Bolesław royal regalia and a replica of the Holy Lance, which were later used at his coronation as the first King of Poland in circa 1025, when Bolesław received permission for his coronation from Pope John XIX.[42][43] Bolesław also expanded the realm considerably by seizing parts of German Lusatia, Czech Moravia, Upper Hungary and southwestern regions of the Kievan Rus'.[44] Casimir III the Great is the only Polish king to receive the title of Great. He built extensively during his reign, and reformed the Polish army along with the country's legal code, 1333–70. The transition from paganism in Poland was not instantaneous and resulted in the pagan reaction of the 1030s.[45] In 1031, Mieszko II Lambert lost the title of king and fled amidst the violence.[46] The unrest led to the transfer of the capital to Kraków in 1038 by Casimir I the Restorer.[47] In 1076, Bolesław II re-instituted the office of king, but was banished in 1079 for murdering his opponent, Bishop Stanislaus.[48] In 1138, the country fragmented into five principalities when Bolesław III Wrymouth divided his lands among his sons.[21] These comprised Lesser Poland, Greater Poland, Silesia, Masovia and Sandomierz, with intermittent hold over Pomerania.[49] In 1226, Konrad I of Masovia invited the Teutonic Knights to aid in combating the Baltic Prussians; a decision that led to centuries of warfare with the Knights.[50] In the mid-13th century, Henry I the Bearded and Henry II the Pious aimed to unite the fragmented dukedoms, but the Mongol invasions and the death of Henry II in battle hindered the unification.[51][52] As a result of the devastation which followed, depopulation and the demand for craft labour spurred a migration of German and Flemish settlers into Poland, which was encouraged by the Polish dukes.[53] In 1264, the Statute of Kalisz introduced unprecedented autonomy for the Polish Jews, who came to Poland fleeing persecution elsewhere in Europe.[54] In 1320, Władysław I the Short became the first king of a reunified Poland since Przemysł II in 1296,[55] and the first to be crowned at Wawel Cathedral in Kraków.[56] Beginning in 1333, the reign of Casimir III the Great was marked by developments in castle infrastructure, army, judiciary and diplomacy.[57][58] Under his authority, Poland transformed into a major European power; he instituted Polish rule over Ruthenia in 1340 and imposed quarantine that prevented the spread of Black Death.[59][60] In 1364, Casimir inaugurated the University of Kraków, one of the oldest institutions of higher learning in Europe.[61] Upon his death in 1370, the Piast dynasty came to an end.[62] He was succeeded by his closest male relative, Louis of Anjou, who ruled Poland, Hungary and Croatia in a personal union.[63] Louis' younger daughter Jadwiga became Poland's first female monarch in 1384.[63] The Battle of Grunwald was fought against the German Order of Teutonic Knights, and resulted in a decisive victory for the Kingdom of Poland, 15 July 1410. In 1386, Jadwiga of Poland entered a marriage of convenience with Władysław II Jagiełło, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, thus forming the Jagiellonian dynasty and the Polish–Lithuanian union which spanned the late Middle Ages and early Modern Era.[64] The partnership between Poles and Lithuanians brought the vast multi-ethnic Lithuanian territories into Poland's sphere of influence and proved beneficial for its inhabitants, who coexisted in one of the largest European political entities of the time.[65] In the Baltic Sea region, the struggle of Poland and Lithuania with the Teutonic Knights continued and culminated at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, where a combined Polish-Lithuanian army inflicted a decisive victory against them.[66] In 1466, after the Thirteen Years' War, king Casimir IV Jagiellon gave royal consent to the Peace of Thorn, which created the future Duchy of Prussia under Polish suzerainty and forced the Prussian rulers to pay tributes.[21] The Jagiellonian dynasty also established dynastic control over the kingdoms of Bohemia (1471 onwards) and Hungary.[67] In the south, Poland confronted the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Tatars, and in the east helped Lithuania to combat Russia.[21] Poland was developing as a feudal state, with a predominantly agricultural economy and an increasingly powerful landed nobility that confined the population to private manorial farmsteads, or folwarks.[68] In 1493, John I Albert sanctioned the creation of a bicameral parliament composed of a lower house, the Sejm, and an upper house, the Senate.[69] The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish General Sejm in 1505, transferred most of the legislative power from the monarch to the parliament, an event which marked the beginning of the period known as Golden Liberty, when the state was ruled by the seemingly free and equal Polish nobles.[70] Wawel Castle in Kraków, seat of Polish kings from 1038 until the capital was moved to Warsaw in 1596. The 16th century saw Protestant Reformation movements making deep inroads into Polish Christianity, which resulted in the establishment of policies promoting religious tolerance, unique in Europe at that time.[71] This tolerance allowed the country to avoid the religious turmoil and wars of religion that beset Europe.[71] In Poland, Nontrinitarian Christianity became the doctrine of the so-called Polish Brethren, who separated from their Calvinist denomination and became the co-founders of global Unitarianism.[72] The European Renaissance evoked under Sigismund I the Old and Sigismund II Augustus a sense of urgency in the need to promote a cultural awakening.[21] During the Polish Golden Age, the nation's economy and culture flourished.[21] The Italian-born Bona Sforza, daughter of the Duke of Milan and queen consort to Sigismund I, made considerable contributions to architecture, cuisine, language and court customs at Wawel Castle.[21] Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Main articles: History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795), Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, and Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth at its greatest extent in 1619 The Union of Lublin of 1569 established the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a unified federal state with an elective monarchy, but largely governed by the nobility.[73] The latter coincided with a period of prosperity; the Polish-dominated union thereafter becoming a leading power and a major cultural entity, exercising political control over parts of Central, Eastern, Southeastern and Northern Europe. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth occupied approximately 1 million km2 (390,000 sq mi) at its peak and was the largest state in Europe.[74][75] Simultaneously, Poland imposed Polonisation policies in newly acquired territories which were met with resistance from ethnic and religious minorities.[73] In 1573, Henry de Valois of France, the first elected king, approbated the Henrician Articles which obliged future monarchs to respect the rights of nobles.[76] His successor, Stephen Báthory, led a successful campaign in the Livonian War, granting Poland more lands across the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea.[77] State affairs were then headed by Jan Zamoyski, the Crown Chancellor.[78] In 1592, Sigismund III of Poland succeeded his father, John Vasa, in Sweden.[79] The Polish-Swedish union endured until 1599, when he was deposed by the Swedes.[80] King John III Sobieski defeated the Ottoman Turks at the Battle of Vienna on 12 September 1683. In 1609, Sigismund invaded Russia which was engulfed in a civil war,[21] and a year later the Polish winged hussar units under Stanisław Żółkiewski occupied Moscow for two years after defeating the Russians at Klushino.[21] Sigismund also countered the Ottoman Empire in the southeast; at Khotyn in 1621 Jan Karol Chodkiewicz achieved a decisive victory against the Turks, which ushered the downfall of Sultan Osman II.[81][82] Sigismund's long reign in Poland coincided with the Silver Age.[83] The liberal Władysław IV effectively defended Poland's territorial possessions but after his death the vast Commonwealth began declining from internal disorder and constant warfare.[84][85] In 1648, the Polish hegemony over Ukraine sparked the Khmelnytsky Uprising,[86] followed by the decimating Swedish Deluge during the Second Northern War,[87] and Prussia's independence in 1657.[87] In 1683, John III Sobieski re-established military prowess when he halted the advance of an Ottoman Army into Europe at the Battle of Vienna.[88] The successive Saxon era, under Augustus II and Augustus III, saw the rise of neighbouring countries in the aftermath of the Great Northern War (1700) and the War of the Polish Succession (1733).[89] Partitions Main articles: History of Poland (1795–1918) and Partitions of Poland Stanisław II Augustus, the last King of Poland, reigned from 1764 until his abdication on 25 November 1795. The royal election of 1764 resulted in the elevation of Stanisław II Augustus Poniatowski to the monarchy.[90] His candidacy was extensively funded by his sponsor and former lover, Empress Catherine II of Russia.[91] The new king maneuvered between his desire to implement necessary modernising reforms, and the necessity to remain at peace with surrounding states.[92] His ideals led to the formation of the 1768 Bar Confederation, a rebellion directed against the Poniatowski and all external influence, which ineptly aimed to preserve Poland's sovereignty and privileges held by the nobility.[93] The failed attempts at government restructuring as well as the domestic turmoil provoked its neighbours to intervene.[94] In 1772, the First Partition of the Commonwealth by Prussia, Russia and Austria took place; an act which the Partition Sejm, under considerable duress, eventually ratified as a fait accompli.[95] Disregarding the territorial losses, in 1773 a plan of critical reforms was established, in which the Commission of National Education, the first government education authority in Europe, was inaugurated.[96] Corporal punishment of schoolchildren was officially prohibited in 1783. Poniatowski was the head figure of the Enlightenment, encouraged the development of industries, and embraced republican neoclassicism.[97] For his contributions to the arts and sciences he was awarded a Fellowship of the Royal Society.[98] In 1791, Great Sejm parliament adopted the 3 May Constitution, the first set of supreme national laws, and introduced a constitutional monarchy.[99] The Targowica Confederation, an organisation of nobles and deputies opposing the act, appealed to Catherine and caused the 1792 Polish–Russian War.[100] Fearing the reemergence of Polish hegemony, Russia and Prussia arranged and in 1793 executed, the Second Partition, which left the country deprived of territory and incapable of independent existence. On 24 October 1795, the Commonwealth was partitioned for the third time and ceased to exist as a territorial entity.[101][102] Stanisław Augustus, the last King of Poland, abdicated the throne on 25 November 1795.[103] Era of insurrections Main articles: Austrian Partition, Prussian Partition, and Russian Partition The partitions of Poland, carried out by the Kingdom of Prussia (blue), the Russian Empire (brown), and the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy (green) in 1772, 1793 and 1795. The Polish people rose several times against the partitioners and occupying armies. An unsuccessful attempt at defending Poland's sovereignty took place in the 1794 Kościuszko Uprising, where a popular and distinguished general Tadeusz Kościuszko, who had several years earlier served under George Washington in the American Revolutionary War, led Polish insurgents.[104] Despite the victory at the Battle of Racławice, his ultimate defeat ended Poland's independent existence for 123 years.[105] In 1806, an insurrection organised by Jan Henryk Dąbrowski liberated western Poland ahead of Napoleon's advance into Prussia during the War of the Fourth Coalition. In accordance with the 1807 Treaty of Tilsit, Napoleon proclaimed the Duchy of Warsaw, a client state ruled by his ally Frederick Augustus I of Saxony. The Poles actively aided French troops in the Napoleonic Wars, particularly those under Józef Poniatowski who became Marshal of France shortly before his death at Leipzig in 1813.[106] In the aftermath of Napoleon's exile, the Duchy of Warsaw was abolished at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and its territory was divided into Russian Congress Kingdom of Poland, the Prussian Grand Duchy of Posen, and Austrian Galicia with the Free City of Kraków.[107] Tadeusz Kościuszko was a veteran and hero of both the Polish and American wars of independence.[104] In 1830, non-commissioned officers at Warsaw's Officer Cadet School rebelled in what was the November Uprising.[108] After its collapse, Congress Poland lost its constitutional autonomy, army and legislative assembly.[109] During the European Spring of Nations, Poles took up arms in the Greater Poland Uprising of 1848 to resist Germanisation, but its failure saw duchy's status reduced to a mere province; and subsequent integration into the German Empire in 1871.[110] In Russia, the fall of the January Uprising (1863–1864) prompted severe political, social and cultural reprisals, followed by deportations and pogroms of the Polish-Jewish population. Towards the end of the 19th century, Congress Poland became heavily industrialised; its primary exports being coal, zinc, iron and textiles.[111][112] Second Polish Republic Main articles: History of Poland (1918–1939), Battle of Warsaw (1920), and Second Polish Republic Chief of State Marshal Józef Piłsudski was a hero of the Polish independence campaign and the nation's premiere statesman from 1918 until his death on 12 May 1935. In the aftermath of World War I, the Allies agreed on the reconstitution of Poland, confirmed through the Treaty of Versailles of June 1919.[113] A total of 2 million Polish troops fought with the armies of the three occupying powers, and over 450,000 died.[114] Following the armistice with Germany in November 1918, Poland regained its independence as the Second Polish Republic.[115] It reaffirmed its sovereignty after a series of military conflicts, most notably the Polish–Soviet War, when Poland inflicted a crushing defeat on the Red Army at the Battle of Warsaw.[116] During this period, Poland successfully managed to fuse the territories of the three former partitioning empires into a cohesive nation-state. The inter-war period heralded a new era of Polish politics. Whilst Polish political activists had faced heavy censorship in the decades up until the First World War, the country now found itself trying to establish a new political tradition. For this reason, many exiled Polish activists, such as Ignacy Paderewski (who would later become prime minister) returned home to help; a significant number of them then went on to take key positions in the newly formed political and governmental structures. Tragedy struck in 1922 when Gabriel Narutowicz, inaugural holder of the presidency, was assassinated at the Zachęta Gallery in Warsaw by a painter and right-wing nationalist Eligiusz Niewiadomski.[117] In 1926, the May Coup, led by the hero of the Polish independence campaign Marshal Józef Piłsudski, turned rule of the Second Polish Republic over to the nonpartisan Sanacja (Healing) movement to prevent radical political organisations on both the left and the right from destabilising the country.[118] By the late 1930s, due to increased threats posed by political extremism inside the country, the Polish government became increasingly heavy-handed, banning a number of radical organisations, including communist and ultra-nationalist political parties, which threatened the stability of the country.[119] World War II Main articles: History of Poland (1939–1945), Invasion of Poland, Polish contribution to World War II, and War crimes in occupied Poland during World War II Polish Army 7TP tanks on military manoeuvres shortly before the invasion of Poland in 1939 World War II began with the Nazi German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939, followed by the Soviet invasion of Poland on 17 September. On 28 September 1939, Warsaw fell. As agreed in the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Poland was split into two zones, one occupied by Nazi Germany, the other by the Soviet Union. In 1939–1941, the Soviets deported hundreds of thousands of Poles. The Soviet NKVD executed thousands of Polish prisoners of war (inter alia Katyn massacre) ahead of Operation Barbarossa.[120] German planners had in November 1939 called for "the complete destruction of all Poles" and their fate as outlined in the genocidal Generalplan Ost.[121] Pilots of the 303 Polish Fighter Squadron during the Battle of Britain, October 1940 Poland made the fourth-largest troop contribution in Europe,[122][123][124] and its troops served both the Polish Government in Exile in the west and Soviet leadership in the east. Polish troops played an important role in the Normandy, Italian and North African Campaigns and are particularly remembered for the Battle of Monte Cassino.[125][126] Polish intelligence operatives proved extremely valuable to the Allies, providing much of the intelligence from Europe and beyond,[127] and Polish code breakers were responsible for cracking the Enigma cipher.[f] In the east, the Soviet-backed Polish 1st Army distinguished itself in the battles for Warsaw and Berlin.[129] The wartime resistance movement, and the Armia Krajowa (Home Army), fought against German occupation. It was one of the three largest resistance movements of the entire war,[g] and encompassed a range of clandestine activities, which functioned as an underground state complete with degree-awarding universities and a court system.[136] The resistance was loyal to the exiled government and generally resented the idea of a communist Poland; for this reason, in the summer of 1944 it initiated Operation Tempest, of which the Warsaw Uprising that begun on 1 August 1944 is the best-known operation.[129][137] Map of the Holocaust in German-occupied Poland with deportation routes and massacre sites. Major ghettos are marked with yellow stars. Nazi extermination camps are marked with white skulls in black squares. The border in 1941 between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union is marked in red. Nazi German forces under orders from Adolf Hitler set up six German extermination camps in occupied Poland, including Treblinka, Majdanek and Auschwitz. The Germans transported millions of Jews from across occupied Europe to be murdered in those camps.[138][139] Altogether, 3 million Polish Jews[140][141] – approximately 90% of Poland's pre-war Jewry – and between 1.8 and 2.8 million ethnic Poles[142][143][144] were killed during the German occupation of Poland, including between 50,000 and 100,000 members of the Polish intelligentsia – academics, doctors, lawyers, nobility and priesthood. During the Warsaw Uprising alone, over 150,000 Polish civilians were killed, most were murdered by the Germans during the Wola and Ochota massacres.[145][146] Around 150,000 Polish civilians were killed by Soviets between 1939 and 1941 during the Soviet Union's occupation of eastern Poland (Kresy), and another estimated 100,000 Poles were murdered by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) between 1943 and 1944 in what became known as the Wołyń Massacres.[147][148] Of all the countries in the war, Poland lost the highest percentage of its citizens: around 6 million perished – more than one-sixth of Poland's pre-war population – half of them Polish Jews.[149][150][151] About 90% of deaths were non-military in nature.[152] In 1945, Poland's borders were shifted westwards. Over two million Polish inhabitants of Kresy were expelled along the Curzon Line by Stalin.[153] The western border became the Oder-Neisse line. As a result, Poland's territory was reduced by 20%, or 77,500 square kilometres (29,900 sq mi). The shift forced the migration of millions of other people, most of whom were Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, and Jews.[154][155][156] Post-war communism Main articles: History of Poland (1945–1989), Polish People's Republic, History of Solidarity, and Polish Round Table Agreement At High Noon, 4 June 1989 — political poster featuring Gary Cooper to encourage votes for the Solidarity party in the 1989 elections At the insistence of Joseph Stalin, the Yalta Conference sanctioned the formation of a new provisional pro-Communist coalition government in Moscow, which ignored the Polish government-in-exile based in London. This action angered many Poles who considered it a betrayal by the Allies. In 1944, Stalin had made guarantees to Churchill and Roosevelt that he would maintain Poland's sovereignty and allow democratic elections to take place. However, upon achieving victory in 1945, the elections organised by the occupying Soviet authorities were falsified and were used to provide a veneer of legitimacy for Soviet hegemony over Polish affairs. The Soviet Union instituted a new communist government in Poland, analogous to much of the rest of the Eastern Bloc. As elsewhere in Communist Europe, the Soviet influence over Poland was met with armed resistance from the outset which continued into the 1950s.[157] Despite widespread objections, the new Polish government accepted the Soviet annexation of the pre-war eastern regions of Poland[158] (in particular the cities of Wilno and Lwów) and agreed to the permanent garrisoning of Red Army units on Poland's territory. Military alignment within the Warsaw Pact throughout the Cold War came about as a direct result of this change in Poland's political culture. In the European scene, it came to characterise the full-fledged integration of Poland into the brotherhood of communist nations.[159] The new communist government took control with the adoption of the Small Constitution on 19 February 1947. The Polish People's Republic (Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa) was officially proclaimed in 1952. In 1956, after the death of Bolesław Bierut, the régime of Władysław Gomułka became temporarily more liberal, freeing many people from prison and expanding some personal freedoms. Collectivization in the Polish People's Republic failed. A similar situation repeated itself in the 1970s under Edward Gierek, but most of the time persecution of anti-communist opposition groups persisted. Despite this, Poland was at the time considered to be one of the least oppressive states of the Eastern Bloc.[160] Labour turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of the independent trade union "Solidarity" ("Solidarność"), which over time became a political force. Despite persecution and imposition of martial law in 1981, it eroded the dominance of the Polish United Workers' Party and by 1989 had triumphed in Poland's first partially free and democratic parliamentary elections since the end of the Second World War. Lech Wałęsa, a Solidarity candidate, eventually won the presidency in 1990. The Solidarity movement heralded the collapse of communist regimes and parties across Europe.[161] Third Polish Republic Main article: History of Poland (1989–present) Flowers in front of the Presidential Palace following the death of Poland's top government officials in a plane crash on 10 April 2010 A shock therapy program, initiated by Leszek Balcerowicz in the early 1990s, enabled the country to transform its socialist-style planned economy into a market economy.[162] As with other post-communist countries, Poland suffered temporary declines in social, economic, and living standards,[163] but it became the first post-communist country to reach its pre-1989 GDP levels as early as 1995, largely due to its booming economy.[164] Poland became a member of the Visegrád Group in 1991,[165] and joined NATO in 1999.[166] Poles then voted to join the European Union in a referendum in June 2003,[167] with Poland becoming a full member on 1 May 2004, following the consequent enlargement of the organisation.[168] Poland joined the Schengen Area in 2007, as a result of which, the country's borders with other member states of the European Union have been dismantled, allowing for full freedom of movement within most of the European Union.[169] On 10 April 2010, the President of Poland Lech Kaczyński, along with 89 other high-ranking Polish officials died in a plane crash near Smolensk, Russia.[170] In 2011, the ruling Civic Platform won parliamentary elections.[171] In 2014, the Prime Minister of Poland, Donald Tusk, was chosen to be President of the European Council, and resigned as prime minister.[172] The 2015 and 2019 elections were won by the conservative Law and Justice Party (PiS) led by Jarosław Kaczyński,[173][174] resulting in increased Euroscepticism and increased friction with the European Union.[175][176] In December 2017, Mateusz Morawiecki was sworn in as the new Prime Minister, succeeding Beata Szydlo, in office since 2015. President Andrzej Duda, supported by Law and Justice party, was narrowly re-elected in the 2020 presidential election.[177] Russia's invasion of Ukraine in 2022 led to 6.9 million Ukrainian refugees arriving in Poland.[178] Geography Main article: Geography of Poland Topographic map of Poland Poland covers an administrative area of 312,722 km2 (120,743 sq mi), and is the ninth-largest country in Europe. Approximately 311,895 km2 (120,423 sq mi) of the country's territory consists of land, 2,041 km2 (788 sq mi) comprises internal waters and 8,783 km2 (3,391 sq mi) is territorial sea.[179] Topographically, the landscape of Poland is characterised by diverse landforms, water bodies and ecosystems.[180] The central and northern region bordering the Baltic Sea lie within the flat Central European Plain, but its south is hilly and mountainous.[181] The average elevation above the sea level is estimated at 173 metres.[179] The country has a coastline spanning 770 km (480 mi); extending from the shores of the Baltic Sea, along the Bay of Pomerania in the west to the Gulf of Gdańsk in the east.[179] The beach coastline is abundant in sand dune fields or coastal ridges and is indented by spits and lagoons, notably the Hel Peninsula and the Vistula Lagoon, which is shared with Russia.[182] The largest Polish island on the Baltic Sea is Wolin, located within Wolin National Park.[183] Poland also shares the Szczecin Lagoon and the Usedom island with Germany.[184] The mountainous belt in the extreme south of Poland is divided into two major mountain ranges; the Sudetes in the west and the Carpathians in the east. The highest part of the Carpathian massif are the Tatra Mountains, extending along Poland's southern border.[185] Poland's highest point is Mount Rysy at 2,501 metres (8,205 ft) in elevation, located in the Tatras.[186] The highest summit of the Sudeten massif is Mount Śnieżka at 1,603.3 metres (5,260 ft), shared with the Czech Republic.[187] The lowest point in Poland is situated at Raczki Elbląskie in the Vistula Delta, which is 1.8 metres (5.9 ft) below sea level.[179] Morskie Oko alpine lake in the Tatra Mountains. Poland has one of the highest densities of lakes in the world. Poland's longest rivers are the Vistula, the Oder, the Warta, and the Bug.[179] The country also possesses one of the highest densities of lakes in the world, numbering around ten thousand and mostly concentrated in the north-eastern region of Masuria, within the Masurian Lake District.[188] The largest lakes, covering more than 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi), are Śniardwy and Mamry, and the deepest is Lake Hańcza at 108.5 metres (356 ft) in depth.[179] Climate Main article: Geography of Poland § Climate The climate of Poland is temperate transitional, and varies from oceanic in the north-west to continental in the south-east.[189] The mountainous southern fringes are situated within an alpine climate.[189] Poland is characterised by warm summers, with a mean temperature of around 20 °C (68.0 °F) in July, and moderately cold winters averaging −1 °C (30.2 °F) in December.[190] The warmest and sunniest part of Poland is Lower Silesia in the southwest and the coldest region is the northeast corner, around Suwałki in Podlaskie province, where the climate is affected by cold fronts from Scandinavia and Siberia.[191] Precipitation is more frequent during the summer months, with highest rainfall recorded from June to September.[190] There is a considerable fluctuation in day-to-day weather and the arrival of a particular season can differ each year.[189] Climate change and other factors have further contributed to interannual thermal anomalies and increased temperatures; the average annual air temperature between 2011 and 2020 was 9.33 °C (48.8 °F), around 1.11 °C higher than in the 2001–2010 period.[191] Winters are also becoming increasingly drier, with less sleet and snowfall.[189] Biodiversity Main article: Geography of Poland § Biodiversity The wisent, one of Poland's national animals, is commonly found at the ancient and UNESCO-protected Białowieża Forest. Phytogeographically, Poland belongs to the Central European province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. The country has four Palearctic ecoregions – Central, Northern, Western European temperate broadleaf and mixed forest, and the Carpathian montane conifer. Forests occupy 31% of Poland's land area, the largest of which is the Lower Silesian Wilderness.[192] The most common deciduous trees found across the country are oak, maple, and beech; the most common conifers are pine, spruce, and fir.[193] An estimated 69% of all forests are coniferous.[194] The flora and fauna in Poland is that of Continental Europe, with the wisent, white stork and white-tailed eagle designated as national animals, and the red common poppy being the unofficial floral emblem.[195] Among the most protected species is the European bison, Europe's heaviest land animal, as well as the Eurasian beaver, the lynx, the gray wolf and the Tatra chamois.[179] The region was also home to the extinct aurochs, the last individual dying in Poland in 1627.[196] Game animals such as red deer, roe deer, and wild boar are found in most woodlands.[197] Poland is also a significant breeding ground for migratory birds and hosts around one quarter of the global population of white storks.[198] Around 315,100 hectares (1,217 sq mi), equivalent to 1% of Poland's territory, is protected within 23 Polish national parks, two of which – Białowieża and Bieszczady – are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.[199] There are 123 areas designated as landscape parks, along with numerous nature reserves and other protected areas under the Natura 2000 network.[200] Government and politics Main article: Politics of Poland Andrzej Sebastian Duda Andrzej Duda President Mateusz Jakub Morawiecki Mateusz Morawiecki Prime Minister Poland is a unitary parliamentary republic and a representative democracy, with a president as the head of state.[201] The executive power is exercised further by the Council of Ministers and the prime minister who acts as the head of government.[201] The council's individual members are selected by the prime minister, appointed by the president and approved by parliament.[201] The head of state is elected by popular vote for a five-year term.[202] The current president is Andrzej Duda and the prime minister is Mateusz Morawiecki.[203] Poland's legislative assembly is a bicameral parliament consisting of a 460-member lower house (Sejm) and a 100-member upper house (Senate).[204] The Sejm is elected under proportional representation according to the d'Hondt method for vote-seat conversion.[205] The Senate is elected under the first-past-the-post electoral system, with one senator being returned from each of the one hundred constituencies.[206] The Senate has the right to amend or reject a statute passed by the Sejm, but the Sejm may override the Senate's decision with a majority vote.[207] The Sejm is the lower house of the parliament of Poland. With the exception of ethnic minority parties, only candidates of political parties receiving at least 5% of the total national vote can enter the Sejm.[206] Both the lower and upper houses of parliament in Poland are elected for a four-year term and each member of the Polish parliament is guaranteed parliamentary immunity.[208] Under current legislation, a person must be 21 years of age or over to assume the position of deputy, 30 or over to become senator and 35 to run in a presidential election.[208] Members of the Sejm and Senate jointly form the National Assembly of the Republic of Poland.[209] The National Assembly, headed by the Sejm Marshal, is formed on three occasions – when a new president takes the oath of office; when an indictment against the president is brought to the State Tribunal; and in case a president's permanent incapacity to exercise his duties due to the state of his health is declared.[209] Administrative divisions Main article: Administrative divisions of Poland Poland is divided into 16 provinces or states known as voivodeships.[210] As of 2022, the voivodeships are subdivided into 380 counties (powiats), which are further fragmented into 2,477 municipalities (gminas).[210] Major cities normally have the status of both gmina and powiat.[210] The provinces are largely founded on the borders of historic regions, or named for individual cities.[211] Administrative authority at the voivodeship level is shared between a government-appointed governor (voivode), an elected regional assembly (sejmik) and a voivodeship marshal, an executive elected by the assembly.[211] Pomeranian Voivodeship PomeranianWest Pomeranian Voivodeship West PomeranianWarmian-Masurian Voivodeship Warmian-MasurianPodlaskie Voivodeship PodlaskieMasovian Voivodeship MasovianKuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship Kuyavian- PomeranianGreater Poland Voivodeship Greater PolandLubusz Voivodeship LubuszLower Silesian Voivodeship Lower SilesianŁódź Voivodeship ŁódźOpolskie Voivodeship OpoleLublin Voivodeship LublinLesser Poland Voivodeship Lesser PolandPodkarpackie Voivodeship SubcarpathianŚwiętokrzyskie Voivodeship Holy CrossSilesian Voivodeship Silesian Voivodeship Capital city Area Population in English in Polish km2[212] 2021[212] Greater Poland Wielkopolskie Poznań 29,826 3,496,450 Kuyavian-Pomeranian Kujawsko-Pomorskie Bydgoszcz & Toruń 17,971 2,061,942 Lesser Poland Małopolskie Kraków 15,183 3,410,441 Łódź Łódzkie Łódź 18,219 2,437,970 Lower Silesian Dolnośląskie Wrocław 19,947 2,891,321 Lublin Lubelskie Lublin 25,123 2,095,258 Lubusz Lubuskie Gorzów Wielkopolski & Zielona Góra 13,988 1,007,145 Masovian Mazowieckie Warsaw 35,559 5,425,028 Opole Opolskie Opole 9,412 976,774 Podlaskie Podlaskie Białystok 20,187 1,173,286 Pomeranian Pomorskie Gdańsk 18,323 2,346,671 Silesian Śląskie Katowice 12,333 4,492,330 Subcarpathian Podkarpackie Rzeszów 17,846 2,121,229 Holy Cross Świętokrzyskie Kielce 11,710 1,224,626 Warmian-Masurian Warmińsko-Mazurskie Olsztyn 24,173 1,416,495 West Pomeranian Zachodniopomorskie Szczecin 22,905 1,688,047 Law Main article: Law of Poland The Constitution of 3 May adopted in 1791 was the first modern constitution in Europe. The Constitution of Poland is the enacted supreme law, and Polish judicature is based on the principle of civil rights, governed by the code of civil law.[213] The current democratic constitution was adopted by the National Assembly of Poland on 2 April 1997; it guarantees a multi-party state with freedoms of religion, speech and assembly, prohibits the practices of forced medical experimentation, torture or corporal punishment, and acknowledges the inviolability of the home, the right to form trade unions, and the right to strike.[214] The judiciary in Poland is composed of the Supreme Court as the country's highest judicial organ, the Supreme Administrative Court for the judicial control of public administration, Common Courts (District, Regional, Appellate) and the Military Court.[215] The Constitutional and State Tribunals are separate judicial bodies, which rule the constitutional liability of people holding the highest offices of state and supervise the compliance of statutory law, thus protecting the Constitution.[216] Judges are nominated by the National Council of the Judiciary and are appointed for life by the president.[216] On the approval of the Senate, the Sejm appoints an ombudsman for a five-year term to guard the observance of social justice.[206] Poland has a low homicide rate at 0.7 murders per 100,000 people, as of 2018.[217] Rape, assault and violent crime remain at a very low level.[218] The country has imposed strict regulations on abortion, which is permitted only in cases of rape, incest or when the woman's life is in danger; congenital disorder and stillbirth are not covered by the law, prompting some women to seek abortion abroad.[219] Historically, the most significant Polish legal act is the Constitution of 3 May 1791. Instituted to redress long-standing political defects of the federative Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and its Golden Liberty, it was the first modern constitution in Europe and influenced many later democratic movements across the globe.[220][221][222] In 1918, the Second Polish Republic became one of the first countries to introduce universal women's suffrage.[223] Foreign relations Main articles: Foreign relations of Poland and List of diplomatic missions of Poland The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, located in Warsaw Poland is a middle power and is transitioning into a regional power in Europe.[224][225] It has a total of 52 representatives in the European Parliament as of 2022.[226] Warsaw serves as the headquarters for Frontex, the European Union's agency for external border security as well as ODIHR, one of the principal institutions of the OSCE.[227][228] Apart from the European Union, Poland has been a member of NATO, the United Nations, and the WTO. In recent years, Poland significantly strengthened its relations with the United States, thus becoming one of its closest allies and strategic partners in Europe.[229] Historically, Poland maintained strong cultural and political ties to Hungary; this special relationship was recognised by the parliaments of both countries in 2007 with the joint declaration of 23 March as "The Day of Polish-Hungarian Friendship".[230] Military Main article: Polish Armed Forces Polish Air Force F-16s, a single-engine multirole fighter aircraft The Polish Armed Forces are composed of five branches – the Land Forces, the Navy, the Air Force, the Special Forces and the Territorial Defence Force.[231] The military is subordinate to the Ministry of National Defence of the Republic of Poland.[231] However, its commander-in-chief in peacetime is the president, who nominates officers, the Minister for National Defence and the chief of staff.[231] Polish military tradition is generally commemorated by the Armed Forces Day, celebrated annually on 15 August.[232] As of 2022, the Polish Armed Forces have a combined strength of 114,050 active soldiers, with a further 75,400 active in the gendarmerie and defence force.[233] Poland is spending 2% of its GDP on defence, equivalent to approximately US$14.5 billion in 2022, with a slated increase to US$29 billion in 2023.[234][235] From 2022, Poland is set to spend 110 billion euros on the modernisation of its armed forces, in close cooperation with American, South Korean and local Polish defence manufacturers.[236] Also, the Polish military is set to increase its size to 250,000 enlisted and officers, and 50,000 defence force personnel.[237] According to SIPRI, the country exported €487 million worth of arms and armaments to foreign countries in 2020.[238] Compulsory military service for men, who previously had to serve for nine months, was discontinued in 2008.[239] Polish military doctrine reflects the same defensive nature as that of its NATO partners and the country actively hosts NATO's military exercises.[233] Since 1953, the country has been a large contributor to various United Nations peacekeeping missions,[240] and currently maintains military presence in the Middle East, Africa, the Baltic states and southeastern Europe.[233] Law enforcement and emergency services Main articles: Law enforcement in Poland, Emergency medical services in Poland, and State Fire Service A Mercedes-Benz Sprinter patrol van belonging to the Polish State Police Service (Policja) Law enforcement in Poland is performed by several agencies which are subordinate to the Ministry of Interior and Administration – the State Police (Policja), assigned to investigate crimes or transgression; the Municipal City Guard, which maintains public order; and several specialised agencies, such as the Polish Border Guard.[241] Private security firms are also common, although they possess no legal authority to arrest or detain a suspect.[241][242] Municipal guards are primarily headed by provincial, regional or city councils; individual guards are not permitted to carry firearms unless instructed by the superior commanding officer.[243] Security service personnel conduct regular patrols in both large urban areas or smaller suburban localities.[244] The Internal Security Agency (ABW, or ISA in English) is the chief counter-intelligence instrument safeguarding Poland's internal security, along with Agencja Wywiadu (AW) which identifies threats and collects secret information abroad.[245] The Central Investigation Bureau of Police (CBŚP) and the Central Anticorruption Bureau (CBA) are responsible for countering organised crime and corruption in state and private institutions.[246][247] Emergency services in Poland consist of the emergency medical services, search and rescue units of the Polish Armed Forces and State Fire Service. Emergency medical services in Poland are operated by local and regional governments,[248] but are a part of the centralised national agency - the National Medical Emergency Service (Państwowe Ratownictwo Medyczne).[249] Economy Main article: Economy of Poland Panorama siekierkowski.jpg Economic indicators GDP (PPP) $1.599 trillion (2022) [9] Nominal GDP $716 billion (2022) [9] Real GDP growth 4.5% (2019) [250] CPI inflation 2.2% (2019) [251] Employment-to-population ratio 55% (2019) [252] Unemployment 2.9% (2021) [253] Total public debt $274 billion (2019) [254] As of 2023, Poland's economy and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the sixth largest in the European Union by nominal standards and the fifth largest by purchasing power parity. It is also one of the fastest growing within the Union and reached a developed market status in 2018.[255] The unemployment rate published by Eurostat in 2021 amounted to 2.9%, which was the second-lowest in the EU.[256] Around 61% of the employed population works in the service sector, 31% in manufacturing, and 8% in the agricultural sector.[257] Although Poland is a member of EU's single market, the country has not adopted the Euro as legal tender and maintains its own currency – the Polish złoty (zł, PLN). Poland is the regional economic leader in Central Europe, with nearly 40 per cent of the 500 biggest companies in the region (by revenues) as well as a high globalisation rate.[258] The country's largest firms compose the WIG20 and WIG30 indexes, which is traded on the Warsaw Stock Exchange. According to reports made by the National Bank of Poland, the value of Polish foreign direct investments reached almost 300 billion PLN at the end of 2014. The Central Statistical Office estimated that in 2014 there were 1,437 Polish corporations with interests in 3,194 foreign entities.[259] Poland has the largest banking sector in Central Europe,[260] with 32.3 branches per 100,000 adults.[261] It was the only European economy to have avoided the recession of 2008.[262] The country is the 20th largest exporter of goods and services in the world.[263] Exports of goods and services are valued at approximately 56% of GDP, as of 2020.[264] In 2019, Poland passed a law that would exempt workers under the age of 26 from income tax.[265] Tourism Main articles: Tourism in Poland, List of World Heritage Sites of Poland, List of Historic Monuments (Poland), Seven Wonders of Poland, and Crown of Polish Mountains The Old City of Zamość is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Poland experienced a significant increase in the number of tourists after joining the European Union in 2004.[266][267] With nearly 21 million international arrivals in 2019, tourism contributes considerably to the overall economy and makes up a relatively large proportion of the country's service market.[268][269] Tourist attractions in Poland vary, from the mountains in the south to the sandy beaches in the north, with a trail of nearly every architectural style. The most visited city is Kraków, which was the former capital of Poland and serves as a relic of the Polish Golden Age and the Renaissance. Kraków also held royal coronations of most Polish kings and monarchs at Wawel, the nation's chief historical landmark. Among other notable sites in the country is Wrocław, one of the oldest cities in Poland which was a model for the founding of Kraków. Wrocław is famous for its dwarf statues, a large market square with two town halls, and the oldest Zoological Gardens with one of the world's largest number of animal species. The Polish capital Warsaw and its historical Old Town were entirely reconstructed after wartime destruction. Other cities attracting countless tourists include Gdańsk, Poznań, Lublin, Toruń as well as the site of the German Auschwitz concentration camp in Oświęcim. A notable highlight is the 13th-century Wieliczka Salt Mine with its labyrinthine tunnels, a subterranean lake and chapels carved by miners out of rock salt beneath the ground.[citation needed] Poland's main tourist offerings include outdoor activities such as skiing, sailing, mountain hiking and climbing, as well as agritourism, sightseeing historical monuments. Tourist destinations include the Baltic Sea coast in the north; the Masurian Lake District and Białowieża Forest in the east; on the south Karkonosze, the Table Mountains and the Tatra Mountains, where Rysy – the highest peak of Poland, and Eagle's Path mountain trail are located. The Pieniny and Bieszczady Mountains lie in the extreme south-east.[270] There are over 100 castles in the country, most in the Lower Silesian Voivodeship, and also on the Trail of the Eagles' Nests.[271] The largest castle in the world by land area is situated in Malbork, in north-central Poland.[272] Transport and energy Main articles: Transport in Poland and Energy in Poland PKP Intercity Pendolino at the Wrocław railway station Transport in Poland is provided by means of rail, road, marine shipping and air travel. The country is part of EU's Schengen Area and is an important transport hub along neighbouring Germany due to its strategic position in Central Europe.[273] Some of the longest European routes, including the E40, run through Poland. The country has a good network of highways, composed of express roads and motorways. At the start of 2022, Poland had 4,623.3 km (2,872.8 mi) of highways in use.[274] In addition, all local and regional roads are monitored by the National Road Rebuilding Programme, which aims to improve the quality of travel in the countryside and suburban localities.[275] In 2017, the nation had 18,513 kilometres (11,503 mi) of railway track, the third longest in European Union, after Germany and France.[276][better source needed] The Polish State Railways (PKP) is the dominant railway operator in the country. Poland has a number of international airports, the largest of which is Warsaw Chopin Airport, the primary global hub for LOT Polish Airlines. Seaports exist all along Poland's Baltic coast, with most freight operations using Świnoujście, Police, Szczecin, Kołobrzeg, Gdynia, Gdańsk and Elbląg as their base. The Port of Gdańsk is the only port in the Baltic Sea adapted to receive oceanic vessels. The electricity generation sector in Poland is largely fossil-fuel–based. Coal production in Poland is a major source of jobs and the largest source of the nation's greenhouse gas emissions.[277] Many power plants nationwide use Poland's position as a major European exporter of coal to their advantage by continuing to use coal as the primary raw material in the production of their energy. The three largest Polish coal mining firms (Węglokoks, Kompania Węglowa and JSW) extract around 100 million tonnes of coal annually.[278] After coal, Polish energy supply replies significantly on oil—the nation is the third-largest buyer of Russian oil exports to the EU.[279] The new Energy Policy of Poland until 2040 (EPP2040) would reduce the share of coal and lignite in electricity generation by 25% from 2017 to 2030. The plan involves deploying new nuclear plants, increasing energy efficiency, and decarbonising the Polish transport system in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and prioritise long-term energy security.[277][280] Science and technology Main articles: Polish science and technology and Poles § Science and technology Physicist and chemist Maria Skłodowska-Curie was the first person to win two Nobel Prizes.[281] Over the course of history, the Polish people have made considerable contributions in the fields of science, technology and mathematics.[282] Perhaps the most renowned Pole to support this theory was Nicolaus Copernicus (Mikołaj Kopernik), who triggered the Copernican Revolution by placing the Sun rather than the Earth at the center of the universe.[283] He also derived a quantity theory of money, which made him a pioneer of economics. Copernicus' achievements and discoveries are considered the basis of Polish culture and cultural identity.[284] Poland was ranked 40th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021, down from 39th in 2019.[285] Nicolaus Copernicus, the 16th century Polish astronomer who formulated the heliocentric model of the solar system. Poland's tertiary education institutions; traditional universities, as well as technical, medical, and economic institutions, employ around tens of thousands of researchers and staff members. There are hundreds of research and development institutes.[286] However, in the 19th and 20th centuries many Polish scientists worked abroad; one of the most important of these exiles was Maria Skłodowska-Curie, a physicist and chemist who lived much of her life in France. In 1925 she established Poland's Radium Institute.[281] In the first half of the 20th century, Poland was a flourishing centre of mathematics. Outstanding Polish mathematicians formed the Lwów School of Mathematics (with Stefan Banach, Stanisław Mazur, Hugo Steinhaus, Stanisław Ulam) and Warsaw School of Mathematics (with Alfred Tarski, Kazimierz Kuratowski, Wacław Sierpiński and Antoni Zygmund). Numerous mathematicians, scientists, chemists or economists emigrated due to historic vicissitudes, among them Benoit Mandelbrot, Leonid Hurwicz, Alfred Tarski, Joseph Rotblat and Nobel Prize laureates Roald Hoffmann, Georges Charpak and Tadeusz Reichstein. In the 1930s, mathematician and cryptologist Marian Rejewski invented the Cryptographic Bomb which formed the basis of the effort that allowed the Allies to crack the Enigma code. Demographics Main articles: Demographics of Poland, List of cities and towns in Poland, Metropolitan areas in Poland, Poles, and Polish diaspora Poland has a population of approximately 38.2 million as of 2021, and is the ninth-most populous country in Europe, as well as the fifth-most populous member state of the European Union.[287] It has a population density of 122 inhabitants per square kilometre (328 per square mile).[288] The total fertility rate was estimated at 1.42 children born to a woman in 2019, which is among the world's lowest.[289] Furthermore, Poland's population is aging significantly, and the country has a median age of roughly 42.[290] Population of Poland from 1900 to 2010 in millions of inhabitants Around 60% of the country's population lives in urban areas or major cities and 40% in rural zones.[291] In 2020, 50.2% of Poles resided in detached dwellings and 44.3% in apartments.[292] The most populous administrative province or state is the Masovian Voivodeship and the most populous city is the capital, Warsaw, at 1.8 million inhabitants with a further 2-3 million people living in its metropolitan area.[293][294][295] The metropolitan area of Katowice is the largest urban conurbation with a population between 2.7 million[296] and 5.3 million residents.[297] Population density is higher in the south of Poland and mostly concentrated between the cities of Wrocław and Kraków.[298] In the 2011 Polish census, 37,310,341 people reported Polish identity, 846,719 Silesian, 232,547 Kashubian and 147,814 German. Other identities were reported by 163,363 people (0.41%) and 521,470 people (1.35%) did not specify any nationality.[2] Official population statistics do not include migrant workers who do not possess a permanent residency permit or Karta Polaka.[299] More than 1.7 million Ukrainian citizens worked legally in Poland in 2017.[300] The number of migrants is rising steadily; the country approved 504,172 work permits for foreigners in 2021 alone.[301] Largest cities or towns in Poland Statistics Poland (GUS) 2021[302] and GUS BDL 2021[303] Rank Name Voivodeship Pop. Rank Name Voivodeship Pop. Warsaw Warsaw Kraków Kraków 1 Warsaw Masovian 1,860,281 11 Katowice Silesian 285,711 Wrocław Wrocław Łódź Łódź 2 Kraków Lesser Poland 800,653 12 Gdynia Pomeranian 245,222 3 Wrocław Lower Silesian 672,929 13 Częstochowa Silesian 213,107 4 Łódź Łódź 670,642 14 Radom Masovian 201,601 5 Poznań Greater Poland 546,859 15 Toruń Kuyavian-Pomeranian 198,273 6 Gdańsk Pomeranian 486,022 16 Rzeszów Subcarpathian 195,871 7 Szczecin West Pomeranian 396,168 17 Sosnowiec Silesian 193,660 8 Bydgoszcz Kuyavian-Pomeranian 337,666 18 Kielce Świętokrzyskie 186,894 9 Lublin Lublin 334,681 19 Gliwice Silesian 174,016 10 Białystok Podlaskie 294,242 20 Olsztyn Warmian-Masurian 170,225 Languages Main articles: Polish language, Languages of Poland, and Bilingual communes in Poland Dolina Jadwigi — a bilingual Polish-Kashubian road sign with the village name Polish is the official and predominant spoken language in Poland, and is one of the official languages of the European Union.[304] It is also a second language in parts of neighbouring Lithuania, where it is taught in Polish-minority schools.[305][306] Contemporary Poland is a linguistically homogeneous nation, with 97% of respondents declaring Polish as their mother tongue.[307] There are currently 15 minority languages in Poland,[308] including one recognised regional language, Kashubian, which is spoken by approximately 100,000 people on a daily basis in the northern regions of Kashubia and Pomerania.[309] Poland also recognises secondary administrative languages or auxiliary languages in bilingual municipalities, where bilingual signs and placenames are commonplace.[310] According to the Centre for Public Opinion Research, around 32% of Polish citizens declared knowledge of the English language in 2015.[311] Religion Main article: Religion in Poland John Paul II, born Karol Wojtyła, held the papacy between 1978-2005 and was the first Pole to become a Roman Catholic Pope. According to the 2011 census, 87.6% of all Polish citizens adhere to the Roman Catholic Church, with 2.4% identifying as having no religion.[3] Poland is one of the most religious countries in Europe, where Roman Catholicism remains a criterion of national identity and Polish-born Pope John Paul II is widely revered.[312] In 2015, 61.6% of respondents outlined that religion is of high or very high importance.[313] Important pilgrimages to the Jasna Góra Monastery, a shrine dedicated to the Black Madonna, take place annually.[314] However, church attendance has decreased in recent years; only 38% of worshippers attended mass regularly on Sunday in 2018.[315] Freedom of religion in Poland is guaranteed by the Constitution, and the concordat guarantees the teaching of religion in public schools.[316] Historically, the Polish state maintained a high degree of religious tolerance and provided asylum for refugees fleeing religious persecutions in other parts of Europe.[317] Poland also hosted Europe's largest Jewish diaspora and the country was a centre of Ashkenazi Jewish culture and traditional learning until the Holocaust.[318] Contemporary religious minorities comprise Orthodox Christians, Protestants — including Lutherans of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church, Pentecostals in the Pentecostal Church in Poland, Adventists in the Seventh-day Adventist Church and other smaller Evangelical denominations — Jehovah's Witnesses, Eastern Catholics, Mariavites, Jews, Muslims (Tatars) and neopagans, some of whom are members of the Native Polish Church.[319] Health Main article: Health in Poland Medical service providers and hospitals (szpitale) in Poland are subordinate to the Ministry of Health; it provides administrative oversight and scrutiny of general medical practice, and is obliged to maintain a high standard of hygiene and patient care. Poland has a universal healthcare system based on an all-inclusive insurance system; state subsidised healthcare is available to all citizens covered by the general health insurance program of the National Health Fund (NFZ). Private medical complexes exist nationwide; over 50% of the population uses both public and private sectors.[320][321][322] According to the Human Development Report from 2020, the average life expectancy at birth is 79 years (around 75 years for an infant male and 83 years for an infant female);[323] the country has a low infant mortality rate (4 per 1,000 births).[324] In 2019, the principal cause of death was ischemic heart disease; diseases of the circulatory system accounted for 45% of all deaths.[325][326] In the same year, Poland was also the 15th-largest importer of medications and pharmaceutical products.[327] Education Main articles: Education in Poland and Universities in Poland Jagiellonian University in Kraków The Jagiellonian University founded in 1364 by Casimir III in Kraków was the first institution of higher learning established in Poland, and is one of the oldest universities still in continuous operation.[328] Poland's Commission of National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej), established in 1773, was the world's first state ministry of education.[329][330] The framework for primary, secondary and higher tertiary education are established by the Ministry of Education and Science. Kindergarten attendance is optional for children aged between three and five, with one year being compulsory for six-year-olds.[331][332] Primary education traditionally begins at the age of seven, although children aged six can attend at the request of their parents or guardians.[332] Elementary school spans eight grades and secondary schooling is dependent on student preference – a four-year high school (liceum), a five-year technical school (technikum) or various vocational studies (szkoła branżowa) can be pursued by each individual pupil.[332] A liceum or technikum is concluded with a maturity exit exam (matura), which must be passed in order to apply for a university or other institutions of higher learning.[333] In Poland, there are over 500 university-level institutions,[334] with technical, medical, economic, agricultural, pedagogical, theological, musical, maritime and military faculties.[335] The University of Warsaw and Warsaw Polytechnic, the University of Wrocław, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań and the University of Technology in Gdańsk are among the most prominent.[336] There are three conventional academic degrees in Poland – licencjat or inżynier (first cycle qualification), magister (second cycle qualification) and doktor (third cycle qualification).[337] In 2018, the Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, ranked Poland's educational system higher than the OECD average; the study showed that students in Poland perform better academically than in most OECD countries.[338] Culture Main article: Culture of Poland The Polish White Eagle is Poland's enduring national and cultural symbol The culture of Poland is closely connected with its intricate 1,000-year history, and forms an important constituent in the Western civilisation.[339] The Poles take great pride in their national identity which is often associated with the colours white and red, and exuded by the expression biało-czerwoni ("whitereds").[340] National symbols, chiefly the crowned white-tailed eagle, are often visible on clothing, insignia and emblems.[341] The architectural monuments of great importance are protected by the National Heritage Board of Poland.[342] Over 100 of the country's most significant tangible wonders were enlisted onto the Historic Monuments Register,[343] with further 17 being recognised by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites.[344] Holidays and traditions See also: Christmas in Poland All Saints' Day on 1 November is one of the most important public holidays in Poland. There are 13 government-approved annual public holidays – New Year on 1 January, Three Kings' Day on 6 January, Easter Sunday and Easter Monday, Labour Day on 1 May, Constitution Day on 3 May, Pentecost, Corpus Christi, Feast of the Assumption on 15 August, All Saints' Day on 1 November, Independence Day on 11 November and Christmastide on 25 and 26 December.[345] Particular traditions and superstitious customs observed in Poland are not found elsewhere in Europe. Though Christmas Eve (Wigilia) is not a public holiday, it remains the most memorable day of the entire year. Trees are decorated on 24 December, hay is placed under the tablecloth to resemble Jesus' manger, Christmas wafers (opłatek) are shared between gathered guests and a twelve-dish meatless supper is served that same evening when the first star appears.[346] An empty plate and seat are symbolically left at the table for an unexpected guest.[347] On occasion, carolers journey around smaller towns with a folk Turoń creature until the Lent period.[348] A widely-popular doughnut and sweet pastry feast occurs on Fat Thursday, usually 52 days prior to Easter.[349] Eggs for Holy Sunday are painted and placed in decorated baskets that are previously blessed by clergymen in churches on Easter Saturday. Easter Monday is celebrated with pagan dyngus festivities, where the youth is engaged in water fights.[350][349] Cemeteries and graves of the deceased are annually visited by family members on All Saints' Day; tombstones are cleaned as a sign of respect and candles are lit to honour the dead on an unprecedented scale.[351] Music Main article: Music of Poland Fryderyk Chopin Fryderyk Chopin was a renowned classical composer and virtuoso pianist. Artur Rubinstein Artur Rubinstein was one of the greatest concert pianists of the 20th century. Artists from Poland, including famous musicians such as Frédéric Chopin, Artur Rubinstein, Ignacy Jan Paderewski, Krzysztof Penderecki, Henryk Wieniawski, Karol Szymanowski, and traditional, regionalised folk composers create a lively and diverse music scene, which even recognises its own music genres, such as sung poetry and disco polo.[352] The origins of Polish music can be traced to the 13th century; manuscripts have been found in Stary Sącz containing polyphonic compositions related to the Parisian Notre Dame School. Other early compositions, such as the melody of Bogurodzica and God Is Born (a coronation polonaise tune for Polish kings by an unknown composer), may also date back to this period, however, the first known notable composer, Nicholas of Radom, lived in the 15th century. Diomedes Cato, a native-born Italian who lived in Kraków, became a renowned lutenist at the court of Sigismund III; he not only imported some of the musical styles from southern Europe but blended them with native folk music.[353] In the 17th and 18th centuries, Polish baroque composers wrote liturgical music and secular compositions such as concertos and sonatas for voices or instruments. At the end of the 18th century, Polish classical music evolved into national forms like the polonaise. Wojciech Bogusławski is accredited with composing the first Polish national opera, titled Krakowiacy i Górale, which premiered in 1794.[354] Fryderyk Chopin Mazurka no. 4 in a minor, op. 17 5:35 Mazurka (Polish: mazurek), stylised folk dance in triple meter (1832), commemorating the November Uprising Poland today has an active music scene, with the jazz and metal genres being particularly popular among the contemporary populace. Polish jazz musicians such as Krzysztof Komeda created a unique style, which was most famous in the 1960s and 1970s and continues to be popular to this day. Poland has also become a major venue for large-scale music festivals, chief among which are the Open'er Festival, Opole Festival and Sopot Festival.[355] Art Main articles: Art in Poland and Young Poland Further information: List of Polish artists Lady with an Ermine (1490) by Leonardo da Vinci. It symbolises Poland's cultural heritage and identity. Art in Poland has invariably reflected European trends, with Polish painting pivoted on folklore, Catholic themes, historicism and realism, but also on impressionism and romanticism. An important art movement was Young Poland, developed in the late 19th century for promoting decadence, symbolism and art nouveau. Since the 20th century Polish documentary art and photography has enjoyed worldwide fame, especially the Polish School of Posters.[356] The most distinguished painting in Poland is Lady with an Ermine (1490) by Leonardo da Vinci, which had a profound influence on Polish cultural heritage and national identity.[357] Internationally renowned Polish artists include Jan Matejko (historicism), Jacek Malczewski (symbolism), Stanisław Wyspiański (art nouveau), Henryk Siemiradzki (Roman academic art), Tamara de Lempicka (art deco), and Zdzisław Beksiński (dystopian surrealism).[358] Several Polish artists and sculptors were also acclaimed representatives of avant-garde, constructivist, minimalist and contemporary art movements, including Katarzyna Kobro, Władysław Strzemiński, Magdalena Abakanowicz, Alina Szapocznikow, Igor Mitoraj and Wilhelm Sasnal. Notable art academies in Poland include the Kraków Academy of Fine Arts, Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw, Art Academy of Szczecin, University of Fine Arts in Poznań and the Geppert Academy of Fine Arts in Wrocław. Contemporary works are exhibited at Zachęta, Ujazdów, and MOCAK art galleries.[359] Architecture Main article: Architecture of Poland Saint Mary's Church in Kraków St. Mary's Basilica on the Main Market Square in Kraków is an example of Brick Gothic architecture. Poznań City Hall The 16th-century City Hall of Poznań illustrates the Renaissance style. The architecture of Poland reflects European architectural styles, with strong historical influences derived from Italy, Germany, and the Low Countries.[360] Settlements founded on Magdeburg Law evolved around central marketplaces (plac, rynek), encircled by a grid or concentric network of streets forming an old town (stare miasto).[361] Poland's traditional landscape is characterised by ornate churches, city tenements and town halls.[362] Cloth hall markets (sukiennice) were once an abundant feature of Polish urban architecture.[363] The mountainous south is known for its Zakopane chalet style, which originated in Poland.[364] The earliest architectonic trend was Romanesque (c. 11th century), but its traces in the form of circular rotundas are scarce.[365] The arrival of brick Gothic (c. 13th century) defined Poland's most distinguishable medieval style, exuded by the castles of Malbork, Lidzbark, Gniew and Kwidzyn as well as the cathedrals of Gniezno, Gdańsk, Wrocław, Frombork and Kraków.[366] The Renaissance (16th century) gave rise to Italianate courtyards, defensive palazzos and mausoleums.[367] Decorative attics with pinnacles and arcade loggias are elements of Polish Mannerism, found in Poznań, Lublin and Zamość.[368][369] Foreign artisans often came at the expense of kings or nobles, whose palaces were built thereafter in the Baroque, Neoclassical and Revivalist styles (17th–19th century).[370] Primary building materials comprising timber or red brick were extensively utilised in Polish folk architecture,[371] and the concept of a fortified church was commonplace.[372] Secular structures such as dworek manor houses, farmsteads, granaries, mills and country inns are still present in some regions or in open air museums (skansen).[373] However, traditional construction methods faded in the early-mid 20th century due to urbanisation and the construction of functionalist housing estates and residential areas.[374] Literature Main articles: Polish literature and History of philosophy in Poland Adam Mickiewicz Adam Mickiewicz, whose national epic poem Pan Tadeusz (1834) is considered a masterpiece of Polish literature. Joseph Conrad-Korzeniowski Joseph Conrad, author of popular books such as Heart of Darkness (1899) and Nostromo (1904). The literary works of Poland have traditionally concentrated around the themes of patriotism, spirituality, social allegories and moral narratives.[375] The earliest examples of Polish literature, written in Latin, date to the 12th century.[376] The first Polish phrase – Day ut ia pobrusa, a ti poziwai[h] – was documented in the Book of Henryków and reflected the use of a quern-stone.[377] It has been since included in UNESCO's Memory of World Register.[378] The oldest extant manuscripts of fine prose in Old Polish are the Holy Cross Sermons and the Bible of Queen Sophia,[379] and Calendarium cracoviense (1474) is Poland's oldest surviving print.[380] The poets Jan Kochanowski and Nicholas Rey became the first Renaissance authors to write in Polish.[381] Prime literarians of the period included Dantiscus, Modrevius, Goslicius, Sarbievius and theologian John Laski. In the Baroque era, Jesuit philosophy and local culture greatly influenced the literary techniques of Jan Andrzej Morsztyn (Marinism) and Jan Chryzostom Pasek (sarmatian memoirs).[382] During the Enlightenment, playwright Ignacy Krasicki composed the first Polish-language novel.[383] Poland's leading 19th-century romantic poets were the Three Bards – Juliusz Słowacki, Zygmunt Krasiński and Adam Mickiewicz, whose epic poem Pan Tadeusz (1834) is a national classic.[384] In the 20th century, the English impressionist and early modernist writings of Joseph Conrad made him one of the most eminent novelists of all time.[385][386] Contemporary Polish literature is versatile, with its fantasy genre having been particularly praised.[387] The philosophical sci-fi novel Solaris by Stanisław Lem and The Witcher series by Andrzej Sapkowski are celebrated works of world fiction.[388] Poland has six Nobel-Prize winning authors – Henryk Sienkiewicz (Quo Vadis; 1905), Władysław Reymont (The Peasants; 1924), Isaac Bashevis Singer (1978), Czesław Miłosz (1980), Wisława Szymborska (1996), and Olga Tokarczuk (2018).[389][390][391] Cuisine Main article: Polish cuisine Selection of hearty traditional comfort food from Poland, including bigos, gołąbki, żurek, pierogi, placki ziemniaczane, and rye bread. The cuisine of Poland is eclectic and shares similarities with other regional cuisines. Among the staple or regional dishes are pierogi (filled dumplings), kielbasa (sausage), bigos (hunter's stew), kotlet schabowy (breaded cutlet), gołąbki (cabbage rolls), barszcz (borscht), żurek (soured rye soup), oscypek (smoked cheese), and tomato soup.[392][393] Traditional dishes are hearty and abundant in pork, potatoes, eggs, cream, mushrooms, regional herbs, and sauce.[394] Polish food is characteristic for its various kinds of kluski (soft dumplings), soups, cereals and a variety of breads and open sandwiches. Salads, including mizeria (cucumber salad), coleslaw, sauerkraut, carrot and seared beets, are common. Meals conclude with a dessert such as sernik (cheesecake), makowiec (poppy seed roll), or napoleonka cream pie.[395] Traditional alcoholic beverages include honey mead, widespread since the 13th century, beer, wine and vodka.[396] The world's first written mention of vodka originates from Poland.[397] The most popular alcoholic drinks at present are beer and wine which took over from vodka more popular in the years 1980–1998.[398] Tea remains common in Polish society since the 19th century, whilst coffee is drunk widely since the 18th century.[399] Fashion and design Further information: Category:Polish fashion Traditional polonaise dresses, 1780–1785. Several Polish designers and stylists left a legacy of beauty inventions and cosmetics; including Helena Rubinstein and Maksymilian Faktorowicz, who created a line of cosmetics company in California known as Max Factor and formulated the term "make-up" which is now widely used as an alternative for describing cosmetics.[400] Faktorowicz is also credited with inventing modern eyelash extensions.[401][402] As of 2020, Poland possesses the fifth-largest cosmetic market in Europe.[403] Inglot Cosmetics is the country's largest beauty products manufacturer,[404] and the retail store Reserved is the country's most successful clothing store chain.[405] Historically, fashion has been an important aspect of Poland's national consciousness or cultural manifestation, and the country developed its own style known as Sarmatism at the turn of the 17th century.[406] The national dress and etiquette of Poland also reached the court at Versailles, where French dresses inspired by Polish garments included robe à la polonaise and the witzchoura. The scope of influence also entailed furniture; rococo Polish beds with canopies became fashionable in French châteaus.[407] Sarmatism eventually faded in the wake of the 18th century.[406] Cinema Main article: Cinema of Poland Andrzej Wajda, the recipient of an Honorary Oscar, the Palme d'Or, as well as Honorary Golden Lion and Golden Bear Awards. The cinema of Poland traces its origins to 1894, when inventor Kazimierz Prószyński patented the Pleograph and subsequently the Aeroscope, the first successful hand-held operated film camera.[408][409] In 1897, Jan Szczepanik constructed the Telectroscope, a prototype of television transmitting images and sounds.[408] They are both recognised as pioneers of cinematography.[408] Poland has also produced influential directors, film producers and actors, many of whom were active in Hollywood, chiefly Roman Polański, Andrzej Wajda, Pola Negri, Samuel Goldwyn, the Warner brothers, Max Fleischer, Agnieszka Holland, Krzysztof Zanussi and Krzysztof Kieślowski.[410] The themes commonly explored in Polish cinema include history, drama, war, culture and black realism (film noir).[408][409] In the 21st-century, two Polish productions won the Academy Awards – The Pianist (2002) by Roman Polański and Ida (2013) by Paweł Pawlikowski.[409] Media Main articles: Television in Poland and Media of Poland Further information: Category:Video gaming in Poland Headquarters of the publicly funded national television network TVP in Warsaw According to the Eurobarometer Report (2015), 78 percent of Poles watch the television daily.[411] In 2020, 79 percent of the population read the news more than once a day, placing it second behind Sweden.[412] Poland has a number of major domestic media outlets, chiefly the public broadcasting corporation TVP, free-to-air channels TVN and Polsat as well as 24-hour news channels TVP Info, TVN 24 and Polsat News.[413] Public television extends its operations to genre-specific programmes such as TVP Sport, TVP Historia, TVP Kultura, TVP Rozrywka, TVP Seriale and TVP Polonia, the latter a state-run channel dedicated to the transmission of Polish-language telecasts for the Polish diaspora. In 2020, the most popular types of newspapers were tabloids and socio-political news dailies.[411] Poland is a major European hub for video game developers and among the most successful companies are CD Projekt, Techland, The Farm 51, CI Games and People Can Fly.[414] Some of the popular video games developed in Poland include The Witcher trilogy and Cyberpunk 2077.[414] The Polish city of Katowice also hosts Intel Extreme Masters, one of the biggest esports events in the world.[414] Sports Main article: Sport in Poland The Stadion Narodowy in Warsaw, home of the national football team Motorcycle Speedway, volleyball and association football are among the country's most popular sports, with a rich history of international competitions.[415][416] Track and field, basketball, handball, boxing, MMA, ski jumping, cross-country skiing, ice hockey, tennis, fencing, swimming, and weightlifting are other popular sports. The golden era of football in Poland occurred throughout the 1970s and went on until the early 1980s when the Polish national football team achieved their best results in any FIFA World Cup competitions finishing third place in the 1974 and the 1982 tournaments. The team won a gold medal in football at the 1972 Summer Olympics and two silver medals, in 1976 and in 1992. In 2012, Poland co-hosted the UEFA European Football Championship.[417] As of November 2022, the Polish men's national volleyball team is ranked as first in the world.[418] The team won a gold medal at the 1976 Summer Olympics and the gold medal at the FIVB World Championship 1974, 2014 and 2018.[419][420] Mariusz Pudzianowski is a highly successful strongman competitor and has won more World's Strongest Man titles than any other competitor in the world, winning the event in 2008 for the fifth time.[421] Poland has made a distinctive mark in motorcycle speedway racing. The top Ekstraliga division has one of the highest average attendances for any sport in Poland. The national speedway team of Poland is one of the major teams in international speedway. Individually, Poland has three Speedway Grand Prix World Champions, with the most successful being three-time World Champion Bartosz Zmarzlik who won back-to-back championships in 2019 and 2020, and his third in 2022. In 2021, Poland finished runners-up in the Speedway of Nations world championship final, held in Manchester, UK in 2021.[422] Poles made significant achievements in mountaineering, in particular, in the Himalayas and the winter ascending of the eight-thousanders. Polish mountains are one of the tourist attractions of the country. Hiking, climbing, skiing and mountain biking and attract numerous tourists every year from all over the world.[270] Water sports are the most popular summer recreation activities, with ample locations for fishing, canoeing, kayaking, sailing and windsurfing especially in the northern regions of the country.[423]