Dutra De Brasil En Manhattan 1949 Presidente 12 Negativos Fotógrafo Famoso

EUR 988,35 ¡Cómpralo ya!, Haga clic para ver el costo de envío, 30-Día Devoluciones, Garantía al cliente de eBay
Vendedor: memorabilia111 ✉️ (808) 100%, Ubicación del artículo: Ann Arbor, Michigan, US, Realiza envíos a: US y muchos otros países, Número de artículo: 176270372924 DUTRA DE BRASIL EN MANHATTAN 1949 PRESIDENTE 12 NEGATIVOS FOTÓGRAFO FAMOSO. 1949  CITY GREETS PRESIDENT DUTRA OF BRAZIL NEGATIVES X12 VINTAGE ORIGINAL 4X5 INCH NEGATIVES FROM  MAY 23, 1949 TAKEN BY FAMED PHOTOGRAPHER JOHN ALBERT WITH ORIGINAL NEGATIVE ENVELOPE AND  PAPER DESCRIPTION . . . John Albert May 23, 1949 president of Brazil Dutra NYC greeted President Dutra of Brazil with a parade from Bowling Green to the steps of City Hall where Mayor O Dwyer greeted in behalf of President Truman the Congress the nation and 6x the people of the City of New York. Grover Whalen a professional greeter sat with the Brazilian president as he drove from Bowling Green to City Hall Eurico Gaspar Dutra was a Brazilian military leader and politician who served as the 16th president of Brazil from 1946 to 1951. He was the first President of the Fourth Brazilian Republic, which followed the Vargas Regime.  John Albert, a former news photographer who had operated the. Graphic Arts Photo Service since 1953, died of cancer on Monday in Mount Sinai Hospital. He was 61 years old and lived at 150 West 96th Street. Mr. Albert, a native New Yorker, was with The Associated Press from 1934 to 1940, during which time he was charter member and organizer of the Newspaper Guild. Subsequently he was briefly with Friday magazine and from 1941 to 1950 with P.M. He had been a member of the New York Press Photographers since 1946, Surviving are his widow, the former Jane Poad, and two sons, Jeff. and Eric.
Eurico Gaspar Dutra (Portuguese: [ewˈɾiku ɡasˈpaɾ ˈdutɾɐ]; 18 May 1883 – 11 June 1974) was a Brazilian military leader and politician who served as the 16th president of Brazil from 1946 to 1951. He was the first President of the Fourth Brazilian Republic, which followed the Vargas Regime. Contents 1 Biography 2 Minister of War 3 1945 election 4 Presidency 5 Later life 6 Gallery 6.1 1949 state visit to the United States 7 References 8 External links Biography Dutra was born in Cuiabá, Mato Grosso. He later falsified his birth year to 1885, at age 19, so that he would have a physical compatible with the age, in order to facilitate his entry into the Army. He studied at the Preparatory and Tactical School of Rio Grande do Sul (1902-1904) and at the Military Academy of Brazil (Military School of ‘’Praia Vermelha’’ in Rio de Janeiro) in 1904, of which he was expelled for taking part in an uprising that same year, related to the Vaccine Revolt, but pardoned, returned to school, now based in Realengo, completing the course in 1906. He was also a student of the School of War in Porto Alegre (1906), the School of Artillery and Engineering, where perfected in mechanics, ballistics and metallurgy (1908-1910), and the School of General Staff, where he graduated as the 1st in class and received the rare mention "très bien" (1922), acting shortly after, in the repression of the São Paulo Revolution of 1924. Helped found the National Defense magazine in 1918, fought the uprising known as the "18 Fort" in 1922, in Rio de Janeiro, and participated, integrating the North Detachment, under the command of General Mena Barreto, of the fighting against an insurgency erupted in Manaus that radiated to Pará. By having fought the Revolution of 1930, he was sent to the command of the 11th Cavalry Independent Regiment in Ponta Porã. Promoted to colonel, Dutra took command of the 4th Cavalry Divisional Regiment (1931-1933) in Três Corações, where he fought the Constitutionalist Revolution in São Paulo in 1932. Defended the government of President Washington Luís against the rebels of 1930s, but already in 1932, fought the Constitutionalist Revolution in São Paulo. Appointed commander of the 1st Military Region (1935-1936), stood out in reaction to the communist movement in 1935, episode known as “Intentona Comunista”, occupying the post of Minister of War (1936-1945). Minister of War During World War II, he was among the Brazilian military leaders who were against an alignment with allies and a deeper involvement of the country in the conflict. With, although modest, Brazil's participation in the war on the Allied side, and the growing pressure from civil society for democratization of the country, Dutra formally adhered to the idea of the end of the regime that started in 1930, participating in the following deposition of Getúlio Vargas in October 1945, continuing the interventionist doctrine, practiced at the time by the Brazilian army.[1] 1945 election In this context, the deposed leader announced the following month his support for Dutra, the candidate of the Army, at the expense of the candidate of the Air Force, Eduardo Gomes, in the elections that followed. Presidency Dutra signs official documents during his inauguration as President of Brazil on 31 January 1946 On 18 September 1946, the fifth constitution of Brazil was enacted, marking the country's return to democratic rule. Later that year, the government created the Social Service of Industry (SESI) and Social Service of Commerce (SESC), and the General Staff, the future General Staff of the Armed Forces (EMFA). The same year, the president ordered the closing of casinos and prohibited gambling in the country. In 1947, he registered the appointment of Osvaldo Aranha delegate of Brazil to the United Nations (UN), the forfeiture of the Brazilian Communist Party (PCB), breaking off diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union (USSR) and achieved, in Petrópolis, the Inter-American Conference of Peacekeeping and Security of the Continent, which was attended by the U.S. president, Harry Truman. Closer relations with the Americans was evidenced also in the formation of the Joint Commission Brazil-United States, known as Abbink Mission, headed by John Abbink and Minister Octavio Gouveia de Bouillon. Assignment was to diagnose the main problems of the Brazilian economy and, as a special recommendation, the use of external resources in the oil sector. Still in 1947 was the intervention of the Ministry of Labour in many unions, continuing the guardianship of the state over union activities guaranteed by ordinance in 9.070 of March 1946, a regulation to limit he right to strike. Concomitant with the union repression and wage restraint, economic policy has gone through two phases: the former was liberal and sought to break with previous forms of intervention in the economy. However, imports of goods led to a rapid depletion of the country's foreign exchange reserves. In 1947, under the guidance of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) a second phase, in which the exchange control was retaken, kept the cruise at high levels compared to the U.S. currency. This policy discouraged exports, encouraging, on the other hand, the import of equipment, machinery and other inputs, excluding consumer goods, and favored the expansion of the manufacturing sector. The development strategy of the government included the “Salte Plan”, named for an emphasis on Health, Food, Transportation and Energy. Proposed in 1947, it aimed at the management of public spending and investment in key sectors in the country but only began to receive funding from the budget in 1949, being forgotten in 1951. During this period measurements the country's economic growth by calculating the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) were first regularly published. The average annual growth of the Brazilian economy under his administration was 7.6%. During the Dutra government construction of the hydroelectric plant of Paulo Afonso, Bahia, and the President Dutra highway linking Rio to São Paulo was initiated. In October 1948 his government set up the Superior School of War (ESG), with American support. Later life Upon leaving the presidency, he remained active in politics until he ran again for president in the indirect elections for president of 1964. Facing a difficult election against military-backed General Humberto de Alencar Castelo Branco, Dutra received only 0.55% of the vote. He died away from public life in Rio de Janeiro on 11 June 1974, at 91. His body was buried in the São João Batista Cemetery. Gallery 1949 state visit to the United States President Dutra and U.S. President Harry S. Truman standing at attention with other dignitaries during welcoming ceremonies for Dutra in Washington, D.C. on May 18. President Dutra and U.S. President Harry S. Truman standing at attention with other dignitaries during welcoming ceremonies for Dutra in Washington, D.C. on May 18.   Presidents Dutra and Truman sampling a birthday cake decorated with Brazilian and U.S. flags. Presidents Dutra and Truman sampling a birthday cake decorated with Brazilian and U.S. flags.   Dutra (in uniform), outside the George Washington home at Mount Vernon, during his visit to the United States. Dutra (in uniform), outside the George Washington home at Mount Vernon, during his visit to the United States.   Dutra, Truman, Mrs. Truman and other dignitaries at a state dinner. Dutra, Truman, Mrs. Truman and other dignitaries at a state dinner.   Americans greet Dutra with a gesture of welcome. Americans greet Dutra with a gesture of welcome. Eurico Gaspar Dutra began his military career at the age of 21, in 1904. During the 1920s he acted in the repression of the tenentista movement . And in the year 1930 he defended the permanence of the government of Washington Luís , composing the legalist forces. It was only in 1932 that he approached the government of Getúlio Vargas, fighting the São Paulo constitutionalist movement . Between 1933 and 1934, Dutra became a general and presided over the Clube Militar. In 1935, he suppressed the Communist Revolt in the federal capital when he took over as head of the 1st Military Region. In December 1936, he was appointed Minister of War, a position he held until August 1945, when the Estado Novo was on the verge of ending. Eurico Gaspar Dutra's role in the Ministry of War was crucial for the conclusion of the Estado Novo regime , as he was committed to anti-communist dissemination and the removal of the governor of Rio Grande do Sul, Flores da Cunha. During the Estado Novo, Dutra promoted the purges of dissidents in the armed forces to guarantee the permanence of the regime. Due to Dutra's closeness to the Axis ' fascist tendencies during World War II, he reluctantly accepted Brazil's entry into the war on the side of the Allies . Despite this reluctance in relation to the Brazilian adhesion to the Allies, Dutra was responsible for organizing the Brazilian Expeditionary Force(FEB) who went to fight fascism in Italy. In August 1945, Eurico Gaspar Dutra left the Ministry of War to run for the country's presidency. This departure occurred because the Estado Novo policy was incompatible with the rising liberal trends. The alliance between Brazil and the United States and the victory of the Allies in the conflict corroborated this incompatibility. Thus, Dutra withdrew from the ministry to become a candidate for the Social Democratic Party (PSD). Before the elections, scheduled for December 1945, Getúlio Vargas was removed from the country's government by the Minister of War, Dutra's successor, Góis Monteiro. Vargas was accused of promoting measures to remain in power, among these measures were his participation in the rally of the “ Quemista ” movement and the appointment of his brother Benjamin Vargas to the head of the police in the Federal District. The “Queremista” movement was named this way because of the appearance of the inscriptions “Queremos Vargas” on the walls of the country's main cities. With Vargas' departure from the government, the minister of the Federal Supreme Court, José Linhares , was temporarily sworn in, who governed for a period of three months until the election was concluded and the president-elect took office in January 1946. Eurico Gaspar Dutra was launched by the coalition between the Social Democratic Party (PSD) and the Brazilian Labor Party (PTB), both created with the intention of continuing Vargas' policies. They contested the elections against Dutra, Brigadier candidate Eduardo Gomes for the National Democratic Union (UDN), who fought against Varguismo, and the communist candidate Yedo Fiúza for the Communist Party of Brazil (PCB). Dutra emerged victorious from the election, obtaining around 55% of the votes. In January 1946, he assumed the presidency of the country. On September 18, 1946, a new Constitution was promulgated , establishing a representative regime for the first time in the country. This Constitution provided for the tripartite division of power : Executive , Legislative and Judiciary . With the emergence of the Cold War , Dutra sided with the United States and severed diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union , thereby seeking American financial aid. However, this support did not occur. The Communist Party of Brazil between the years 1945 and 1947 had grown with a moderate politics, obtaining some seats in the parliament. Dutra's foreign policy, in favor of the United States and against the Soviet Union, also affected the PCB, which had its legality revoked by the Superior Electoral Court and the unions began to suffer intervention from the Federal government. In the face of these attacks, the PCB summoned the population to an armed struggle, but it did not gain widespread support and lost political expression. Politically, Dutra moved away from Varguismo and allied with the UDN through the Interparty Agreement. Economically, Dutra adhered to liberal principles, reducing public investments and promoting a salary squeeze. Incentives for imports squandered foreign currency reserves and unbalanced public accounts with rising inflation . To counterbalance the state economy, Dutra launched the SALTE Plan , with interventionist postulates close to those of Varguismo. The SALTE Plan consisted of a five-year economic program for the development of the areas of health, food, energy and transport. However, many goals of this plan were not achieved due to lack of resources. In October 1950, elections were held for the presidential succession of the Republic. Dutra supported PSD candidate Cristiano Machado. The UDN again launched the candidacy of Brigadier Eduardo Gomes. And Getúlio Vargas came as a candidate for the coalition between the Brazilian Labor Party (PTB) and the Progressive Social Party (PSP). Despite not having the support of the media, Vargas got the most votes (48.7%). The UDN contested Vargas' victory in the election, as he had not obtained an absolute majority of votes, which would be equivalent to 50% or more. The Electoral Justice did not accept such a challenge, as the 1946 Constitution provided that a simple majority of votes was sufficient. Thus, Getúlio Vargas took over the post on January 31, 1951, succeeding General Eurico Gaspar Dutra's term. References: FAUSTO, Boris (org.). Republican Brazil: economy and culture (1930-1964). volume 3, vol.4. Rio de Janeiro: Ed. Bertrand Brasil, 1995. (Col. History of Brazilian Civilization). GOMES, Angela de Castro (org.). Looking inward: 1930-1964. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2013. p. 2 "Context of the Dutra Government: End of the Estado Novo The government of Eurico Gaspar Dutra, started in 1946, inaugurated a new moment in Brazilian history, known as the Republic of 1946 or the Fourth Republic. This period was established with the end of the Vargas Era , in which Getúlio Vargas ruled Brazil. This new phase was understood as the first democratic period in the country's history. The fall of the Estado Novo was mainly a result of the international situation, which made authoritarian governments, such as the Vargas Estado Novo , lose strength. Vargas' opponents exploited Brazil's support for democracies in Europe during World War II and went on to criticize the contradiction of the country fighting dictatorships in Europe and maintaining one here. The strengthening of oppositions against Getúlio Vargas demanded, above all, the holding of presidential elections in Brazil, something that had not happened since 1930. Pressure on Vargas made him promote a small political opening with the objective of sustaining himself in power. In addition, Vargas had been establishing a policy of approximation with workers for some time. In early 1945, Vargas announced the Additional Act , a decree calling for a presidential election in Brazil in December of that year. In addition, the political opening made new parties emerge, something prohibited during the Estado Novo. The existing censorship in the country also weakened visibly. The Estado Novo was losing support with each passing day. The new parties that emerged in Brazil were the following : Social Democratic Party (PSD): emerged between the interveners and the bureaucracy of the Estado Novo. National Democratic Union (UDN): liberal-conservative oriented party that opposed Vargas' political legacy. Partido Trabalhista Brasileiro (PTB): it was formed through trabalhismo, a Vargas policy aimed at the working classes. The Estado Novo ended with a coup promoted by the military in October 1945. The loss of support for Vargas in power caused the Minister of War, Góis Monteiro, to issue an ultimatum to Vargas demanding his resignation. He accepted to resign and was deposed on October 29, 1945. José Linhares, president of the STF, assumed the presidency on an interim basis. Also read: Tonelero Street Attack — the assassination attempt that left Vargas to the downfall 1945 election The 1945 election was held as it had been called by Getúlio Vargas. Vargas ' deposition caused him to withdraw from the dispute , even with significant support from the population, as observed through Querismo — a political movement that emerged spontaneously in mid-1945 through which the working classes expressed support for Vargas. This election had the following candidates for the presidency of Brazil : Eurico Gaspar Dutra (PSD/PTB); Eduardo Gomes (UDN); Iedo Fiuza (PCB); Mario Rolim Teles (PAN). The dispute ended with the victory of Eurico Gaspar Dutra, a soldier supported by Getúlio Vargas . Dutra got 55.39% of the votes, while Eduardo Gomes got 34.74%. Iedo Fiúza obtained 9.71%, and Mário Rolim obtained only 0.17%. Iedo Fiúza ran for the Brazilian Communist Party, and Mário Rolim ran for the National Agrarian Party. With this result, Eurico Gaspar Dutra became the first president of Brazil in the period of the Republic of 1946. Characteristics of the Dutra Government The Dutra government lasted five years. During that time, the most significant achievement was the promulgation of a new Constitution in 1946. The new Constitution was the result of the democratization of Brazil, followed by the end of the Estado Novo. It was enacted on September 18, 1946. The work of the Constituent Assembly began in the early days of Dutra's government and lasted for months. The new Constitution had a much more democratic character, although there were certain limitations on rights and freedoms, and was inspired by the political model proposed by liberals. Brazil established itself as a presidential republic , with presidents being elected for a five-year term without the right to re-election . Brazilians also had to vote to choose the country's vice president. However, the right to vote was limited to those over 18 who were literate, thus excluding a vast portion of our society at the time: the illiterate. In addition, the right to strike was granted , but in a restricted manner , as the government was open to restricting this right of the population. Rural workers were left without access to the rights conquered by urban workers, and the possibility of agrarian reform was limited by the text of the Constitution. Dutra's government was marked by assuming a stance of unconditional ally of the United States in the context of the Cold War . In this sense, a strong repression against leftist parties and social movements was established, starting with the Brazilian Communist Party, which was made illegal in 1947. The elected politicians of this party were impeached the following year. There was a break in Brazil's diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union , the country that internationally led the socialist bloc. The persecution of socialism resulted in hundreds of government interventions in the unions, which aimed to weaken the workers' movement and prevent strikes, for example. Economy in the Dutra Government In the first two years of his government, Dutra adopted a liberal economic policy that opposed state interventions in the economy and, therefore, allowed the market a great deal of freedom, especially in the import of consumer goods. This resulted in a rise in merchandise imports, supported by the appreciation of the national currency . This policy caused imports to increase in volume exponentially, which resulted in the depletion of Brazil's foreign exchange reserves , and no positive result was achieved by the economy. This forced the Brazilian government to adopt a new posture and intervene more incisively in the economy, especially in the field of imports. With this, the government reduced the volume of imports and encouraged the country to produce the goods that were demanded by the domestic market. This measure contributed to boost the Brazilian industry . In recent years, this area has seen significant growth. There were good levels of economic growth in the country , as the GDP grew, on average, 8% per year.| 1 | This economic growth, however, did not represent an increase in the population's quality of life. This is because the Dutra government's repression of unions and workers' movements caused their purchasing power to fall in large cities." Veja mais sobre "Governo Dutra" em: https://brasilescola.uol.com.br/historiab/governo-dutra.htm Eurico Gaspar Dutra, (born May 18, 1885, Cuiaba, Brazil—died June 11, 1974, Rio de Janeiro), soldier and president of Brazil (1945–50), whose administration was noted for its restoration of constitutional democracy. Dutra was commissioned a second lieutenant in the cavalry in 1910 and received routine assignments and promotions for the next 22 years. He consistently supported the established government against all revolutionary movements. Dutra thus opposed Getúlio Dorneles Vargas, who seized power in a coup in 1930, but he later defended Vargas in the 1932 São Paulo revolt. Dutra became one of the principal figures in devising the 1937 constitution for Brazil under Vargas’s rule and served as minister of war throughout the Estado Novo dictatorial period (1937–45). In 1945 he became the official candidate of the Social Democratic Party (Partido Democrático Social; PSD) to succeed Vargas. Following a successful coup (October 1945) by anti-Vargas military officers, Dutra was elected president in December with the support of the PSD and, on Vargas’s recommendation, of the Brazilian Labor Party. Dutra returned Brazil to respected democratic freedoms and strove to improve relations with the United States by clamping down on Brazil’s communists. His administration, however, lacked leadership and wavered in its financial policy; with the resulting public discontent, Dutra was defeated by Vargas in the 1950 presidential election. With his time as president viewed as a basically well-intentioned but weak interlude between two Vargas-led administrations, Dutra enjoyed a long and dignified retirement. This article was most recently revised and updated by Amy McKenna. state Introduction Historical conceptions Contemporary views Fast Facts 2-Min Summary Related Content Media Images More More Articles On This Topic Contributors Article History Home Politics, Law & Government Politics & Political Systems state sovereign political entity      By The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica • Last Updated: Aug 16, 2022 • Edit History Raphael: detail from School of Athens Raphael: detail from School of Athens See all media Related Topics: international relations constitution sovereignty utopia micronation Summary Read a brief summary of this topic state, political organization of society, or the body politic, or, more narrowly, the institutions of government. The state is a form of human association distinguished from other social groups by its purpose, the establishment of order and security; its methods, the laws and their enforcement; its territory, the area of jurisdiction or geographic boundaries; and finally by its sovereignty. The state consists, most broadly, of the agreement of the individuals on the means whereby disputes are settled in the form of laws. In such countries as the United States, Australia, Nigeria, Mexico, and Brazil, the term state (or a cognate) also refers to political units that are not sovereign themselves but subject to the authority of the larger state, or federal union. Historical conceptions Greek and Roman precedents The history of the Western state begins in ancient Greece. Plato and Aristotle wrote of the polis, or city-state, as an ideal form of association, in which the whole community’s religious, cultural, political, and economic needs could be satisfied. This city-state, characterized primarily by its self-sufficiency, was seen by Aristotle as the means of developing morality in the human character. The Greek idea corresponds more accurately to the modern concept of the nation—i.e., a population of a fixed area that shares a common language, culture, and history—whereas the Roman res publica, or commonwealth, is more similar to the modern concept of the state. The res publica was a legal system whose jurisdiction extended to all Roman citizens, securing their rights and determining their responsibilities. With the fragmentation of the Roman system, the question of authority and the need for order and security led to a long period of struggle between the warring feudal lords of Europe. Machiavelli and Bodin Niccolò Machiavelli Niccolò Machiavelli It was not until the 16th century that the modern concept of the state emerged, in the writings of Niccolò Machiavelli (Italy) and Jean Bodin (France), as the centralizing force whereby stability might be regained. In The Prince, Machiavelli gave prime importance to the durability of government, sweeping aside all moral considerations and focusing instead on the strength—the vitality, courage, and independence—of the ruler. For Bodin, his contemporary, power was not sufficient in itself to create a sovereign; rule must comply with morality to be durable, and it must have continuity—i.e., a means of establishing succession. Bodin’s theory was the forerunner of the 17th-century doctrine known as the divine right of kings, whereby monarchy became the predominate form of government in Europe. It created a climate for the ideas of the 17th-century reformers like John Locke in England and Jean-Jacques Rousseau in France, who began to reexamine the origins and purposes of the state. Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau For Locke and Rousseau, as well as for Locke’s English predecessor Thomas Hobbes, the state reflected the nature of the human beings who created it. The “natural condition” of man, said Hobbes, is self-seeking and competitive. Man subjects himself to the rule of the state as the only means of self-preservation whereby he can escape the brutish cycle of mutual destruction that is otherwise the result of his contact with others. John Locke John Locke For Locke, the human condition is not so gloomy, but the state again springs from the need for protection—in this case, of inherent rights. Locke said that the state is the social contract by which individuals agree not to infringe on each other’s “natural rights” to life, liberty, and property, in exchange for which each man secures his own “sphere of liberty.” Jean-Jacques Rousseau Jean-Jacques Rousseau Rousseau’s ideas reflect an attitude far more positive in respect of human nature than either Hobbes or Locke. Rather than the right of a monarch to rule, Rousseau proposed that the state owed its authority to the general will of the governed. For him, the nation itself is sovereign, and the law is none other than the will of the people as a whole. Influenced by Plato, Rousseau recognized the state as the environment for the moral development of humanity. Man, though corrupted by his civilization, remained basically good and therefore capable of assuming the moral position of aiming at the general welfare. Because the result of aiming at individual purposes is disagreement, a healthy (noncorrupting) state can exist only when the common good is recognized as the goal. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Subscribe Now Hegel Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel The 19th-century German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel saw the sphere of liberty as the whole state, with freedom not so much an individual’s right, but rather, a result of human reason. Freedom was not the capacity to do as one liked but was the alignment with a universal will toward well-being. When men acted as moral agents, conflict ceased, and their aims coincided. Subordinating himself to the state, the individual was able to realize a synthesis between the values of family and the needs of economic life. To Hegel, the state was the culmination of moral action, where freedom of choice had led to the unity of the rational will, and all parts of society were nourished within the health of the whole. However, Hegel remained enchanted with the power of national aspiration. He did not share the vision of Immanuel Kant, his predecessor, who proposed the establishment of a league of nations to end conflict altogether and to establish a “perpetual peace.” Bentham and Marx Karl Marx Karl Marx For the English utilitarians of the 19th century, the state was an artificial means of producing a unity of interest and a device for maintaining stability. This benign but mechanistic view proposed by Jeremy Bentham and others set a precedent for the early communist thinkers like Karl Marx for whom the state had become an “apparatus of oppression” determined by a ruling class whose object was always to maintain itself in economic supremacy. He and his collaborator, Friedrich Engels, wrote in The Communist Manifesto that, in order to realize complete freedom and contentment, the people must replace the government first by a “dictatorship of the proletariat,” which would be followed by the “withering away of the state,” and then by a classless society based not on the enforcement of laws but on the organization of the means of production and the fair distribution of goods and property. Contemporary views In the 20th and early 21st centuries, concepts of state ranged from anarchism, in which the state was deemed unnecessary and even harmful in that it operated by some form of coercion, to the welfare state, in which the government was held to be responsible for the survival of its members, guaranteeing subsistence to those lacking it. In the wake of the destruction produced by the nationalistically inspired world wars, theories of internationalism like those of Hans Kelsen and Oscar Ichazo appeared. Kelsen put forward the idea of the state as simply a centralized legal order, no more sovereign than the individual, in that it could not be defined only by its own existence and experience. It must be seen in the context of its interaction with the rest of the world. Ichazo proposed a new kind of state in which the universal qualities of all individuals provided a basis for unification, with the whole society functioning as a single organism. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica This article was most recently revised and updated by Amy Tikkanen. Brazil Introduction & Quick Facts The land The people The economy Administration and social conditions Cultural life History Fast Facts 2-Min Summary Facts & Stats Quizzes Media Videos Images Audio More More Articles On This Topic Additional Reading Contributors Article History Home Geography & Travel Countries of the World Brazil      Alternate titles: Brasil, Federative Republic of Brazil, República Federativa do Brasil By Luciano Martins See All • Last Updated: Oct 3, 2022 • Edit History Brazil flag of Brazil Audio File: National anthem of Brazil See all media Head Of State And Government: President: Jair Bolsonaro Capital: Brasília Population: (2022 est.) 214,891,000 Currency Exchange Rate: 1 USD equals 5.416 Brazilian real Form Of Government: multiparty federal republic with two legislative houses (Federal Senate [81]; Chamber of Deputies [513]) Recent News Oct. 3, 2022, 10:06 AM ET - Former president and leftist icon Luiz Inácio “Lula” da Silva won a narrow victory over far-right incumbent Jair Bolsonaro in the first round of voting in Brazil’s presidential election October 2, but because neither candidate captured more than 50 percent of the vote, they will meet again in a runoff on October 30. Lula claimed 48.4 percent of the vote, compared with 43.2 percent for Bolsonaro. The remainder was divided between nine other candidates. Summary Read a brief summary of this topic Brazil, officially Federative Republic of Brazil, Portuguese República Federativa do Brasil, country of South America that occupies half the continent’s landmass. It is the fifth largest country in the world, exceeded in size only by Russia, Canada, China, and the United States, though its area is greater than that of the 48 conterminous U.S. states. Brazil faces the Atlantic Ocean along 4,600 miles (7,400 km) of coastline and shares more than 9,750 miles (15,700 km) of inland borders with every South American country except Chile and Ecuador—specifically, Uruguay to the south; Argentina, Paraguay, and Bolivia to the southwest; Peru to the west; Colombia to the northwest; and Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana to the north. Brazil stretches roughly 2,700 miles (4,350 km) from north to south and from east to west to form a vast irregular triangle that encompasses a wide range of tropical and subtropical landscapes, including wetlands, savannas, plateaus, and low mountains. Brazil contains most of the Amazon River basin, which has the world’s largest river system and the world’s most-extensive virgin rainforest. The country contains no desert, high-mountain, or arctic environments. Brazil is the fifth most-populous country on Earth and accounts for one-third of Latin America’s population. Most of the inhabitants of Brazil are concentrated along the eastern seaboard, although its capital, Brasília, is located far inland and increasing numbers of migrants are moving to the interior. Rio de Janeiro, in the eyes of many of the world, continues to be the preeminent icon of Brazil. The nation’s burgeoning cities, huge hydroelectric and industrial complexes, mines, and fertile farmlands make it one of the world’s major economies. However, Brazil struggles with extreme social inequalities, environmental degradation, intermittent financial crises, and a sometimes deadlocked political system. Brazil is unique in the Americas because, following independence from Portugal, it did not fragment into separate countries as did British and Spanish possessions in the region; rather, it retained its identity through the intervening centuries and a variety of forms of government. Because of that hegemony, the Portuguese language is universal except among Brazil’s native Indians, especially those in the more-remote reaches of the Amazon basin. At the turn of the 21st century, Brazilians marked the 500th anniversary of Portuguese contact with a mixture of public celebration and deprecation. Ronald Milton Schneider The land Physical features of Brazil Physical features of Brazil The Brazilian landscape is immense and complex, with interspersed rivers, wetlands, mountains, and plateaus adjoining other major features and traversing the boundaries of states and regions. Paper flags of the world. Countries, international, Globalization, Global relations, America, England, Canada, Spain, France, China, United Kingdom. Homepage 2010, arts and entertainment, history and society BRITANNICA QUIZ Pin the Capital on the Country: Fact or Fiction? Is Mecca the capital of Saudi Arabia? Is Milan the capital of Italy? From Kazakhstan and Helsinki to Maldives and Timbuktu, sort fact from fiction while sorting through the countries and capitals in this quiz. Geographic regions The Brazilian government has grouped the country’s states into five large geographic and statistical units called the Major Regions (Grandes Regiões): North (Norte), Northeast (Nordeste), Central-West (Centro-Oeste), Southeast (Sudeste), and South (Sul). The tropical North—comprising the states of Acre, Rondônia, Amazonas, Pará, Tocantins, Roraima, and Amapá—covers more than two-fifths of Brazilian territory and includes the largest portion of Amazon rainforest and parts of the Guiana and Brazilian highlands; however, the region accounts for a limited proportion of the nation’s population and economic output. The Northeast, which experiences some of the nation’s driest and hottest conditions, has nearly one-fifth of Brazil’s land area and more than one-fourth of the population. It contains the states of Maranhão, Piauí, Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte, Paraíba, Alagoas, Sergipe, Bahia, and Pernambuco, the latter including the island of Fernando de Noronha, some 225 miles (360 km) off the Atlantic coast. The region’s oldest cities date from the 16th century, when the Portuguese first established sugarcane plantations there. The Northeast accounts for one-fifth of the nation’s agricultural production, but the industrial and service sectors lag far behind those of the Southeast and South, and the unemployment rate remains high. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Subscribe Now The Southeast covers only one-tenth of Brazil’s territory but has two-fifths of its population and the greatest concentration of industrial and agricultural production in the nation. The region includes São Paulo state, which is the nation’s economic and demographic heartland, landlocked Minas Gerais, whose very name (meaning “Extensive Mines”) testifies to great mineral wealth, and the populous coastal states of Espírito Santo and Rio de Janeiro. The city of Rio de Janeiro, the national capital from 1763 to 1960, remains Brazil’s main cultural and tourist centre. The South, which stretches below the Tropic of Capricorn, includes the states of Paraná, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul. It occupies an area nearly as large as the isle of Britain but is the smallest of Brazil’s regions. Its diversified economy includes strong manufacturing, agriculture, and service sectors. The South has about one-seventh of the nation’s population, including many people of European ancestry, particularly from Germany and Italy. The South’s tourist trade partly depends on the spectacular Iguaçu Falls, at the Argentine border. The Central-West consists of the states of Goiás, Mato Grosso, and Mato Grosso do Sul, as well as the Federal District, in which Brasília is located. The region covers roughly one-fourth of Brazil, including forested valleys, semiarid highlands, and vast wetlands. A small proportion of the nation’s population lives there, but an increasing number of settlers have been moving into the region and extending its agricultural frontiers. Relief Brazil is a predominantly tropical country famous for its extensive Amazon lowlands; however, highlands cover most of the national territory. Brazil’s physical features can be grouped into five main physiographic divisions: the Guiana Highlands in the North, the Amazon lowlands, the Pantanal in the Central-West, the Brazilian Highlands (including the extensive coastal ranges), and the coastal lowlands. Guiana Highlands Brazil shares the rugged Guiana Highlands with Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana. Forested mesas and mountain ranges, scenic waterfalls, and white-water rivers characterize the area. The highest point in Brazil is Neblina Peak, which reaches 9,888 feet (3,014 metres) along the Venezuelan border in the Serra do Imeri. The Serra da Pacaraima, farther east, rises to 9,094 feet (2,772 metres) at Mount Roraima, where the borders of Venezuela, Guyana, and Brazil meet. The less rugged Acaraí and Tumuc-Humac (Tumucumaque) ranges border on the Guianas. Amazon lowlands The Amazon lowlands are widest along the eastern base of the Andes. They narrow toward the east until, downstream of Manaus, only a narrow ribbon of annually flooded plains (várzeas) separates the Guiana Highlands to the north from the Brazilian Highlands to the south. The várzeas fan out again as the watercourse approaches the Atlantic, but no delta extends into the ocean. The basin’s most widespread topographical features are gently undulating hills called terra firme (“solid ground”), composed of layers of alluvial soil that were deposited as much as 2.5 million years ago and subsequently uplifted to positions above flood level. Shallow oxbow lakes and wetlands are found throughout the region. Pantanal The immense Pantanal, an extension of the Gran Chaco plain, is a region of swamps and marshes in northwestern Mato Grosso do Sul and southern Mato Grosso states and, to a lesser extent, in northern Paraguay and eastern Bolivia; it is one of the largest freshwater wetlands in the world, covering some 54,000 square miles (140,000 square km). The Pantanal is dissected by the effluents of the upper Paraguay River, which overflows its banks during the rainy season, inundating all but the tops of scattered levees and low hills. (See also Drainage.) Brazilian Highlands The Brazilian Highlands make up more than half of the country’s landmass and are the main source of the nation’s abundant mineral wealth. In Brazil the highlands are often called the Planalto Central (Central Highlands, or Central Plateau), but that term may be limited to the part of the highlands around Brasília and Goiás. The rugged highlands include steep cliffs, flat-topped plateaus, ravines, rolling hills, and rock outcrops; however, the region’s maximum elevations are below 10,000 feet (3,000 metres). Its highest elevations are in two areas: the first along a series of ridges less than 300 miles (500 km) from the eastern coast, and the second in the environs of Brasília and the border dividing Bahia state from Tocantins and Goiás. The highlands to the north and west of Goiás extend for some 600 miles (1,000 km) until they descend into the Amazon lowlands. A massive escarpment marks the eastern edge of the Brazilian Highlands, extending along the coast for some 1,600 miles (2,600 km) and forming mountain ranges that average approximately 2,600 feet (800 metres) in elevation, with many individual peaks rising above 7,000 feet (about 2,100 metres). The major ranges of the northeastern highlands include the Serra Grande, which skirts the Piauí-Ceará border; the Araripe Upland (Chapado Araripe) in Pernambuco state; and the Diamantina Upland (Chapada Diamantina) in Bahia. The Serra do Espinhaço extends from central Minas Gerais into southern Bahia, where Almas Peak reaches 6,070 feet (1,850 metres). The Serra Geral de Goiás separates the states of Goiás and Tocantins to the west from Bahia to the east. Goiás state also includes some of the more elevated parts of the Planalto Central, the Serra dos Pirineus, and the Serra Dourada. The ranges and plateaus farther north and west, which are neither as elevated nor as deeply dissected as their eastern counterparts, include the mineral-rich Serra dos Carajás in eastern Pará state, the Serra do Cachimbo, mainly in southwestern Pará, and the Parecis Upland (Chapada dos Parecis), which stretches between Rondônia and Mato Grosso. Other highland regions of Mato Grosso state are sometimes collectively designated the Mato Grosso Plateau. Rio de Janeiro: Sugar Loaf Rio de Janeiro: Sugar Loaf The Serra do Mar, averaging some 3,000 feet (1,000 metres) above sea level, is the largest segment of the escarpment along the Atlantic coast. The range extends from southeastern Minas Gerais to eastern Paraná; in the vicinity of Rio de Janeiro, where the range is also known as the Serra dos Orgãos, it presents an almost sheer face to the sea and creates the outcrops of Sugar Loaf (Pão de Açúcar) and Gávea and a string of small islands. The Serra da Mantiqueira, located just north of the Serra do Mar but still somewhat near the coast, marches southward from the Serra do Espinhaço; in southern Minas Gerais the Mantiqueira range reaches 9,143 feet (2,787 metres) at Agulhas Negras Peak on the Rio de Janeiro state border and 9,482 feet (2,890 metres) at Bandeira Peak, near the Serra dos Aimorés, which extends along the Minas Gerais–Espírito Santo border. A series of ridges southwest of the Serra do Mar is known as the Serra de Botucatu in São Paulo state and the Serra Geral from Paraná southward. The Iguaçu River in southwestern Paraná tumbles over a steep rim of diabase rock to form the spectacular Iguaçu Falls. Guaíra Falls on the Paraná River were a similar attraction until 1982, when the huge hydroelectric dam at Itaipú was completed and they were submerged. Coastal lowlands The Atlantic lowlands, which comprise only a tiny part of Brazil’s territory, range up to 125 miles (200 km) wide in the North but become narrower in the Northeast and disappear in parts of the Southeast. Nevertheless, their features are widely varied, including level floodplains, swamps, lagoons, sand dunes, and long stretches of white sandy beaches that are protected in some areas by coral reefs and barrier islands. Various deep harbours exist where the rocky slopes of the coastal ranges plunge directly into the ocean, such as at Guanabara Bay, where Rio de Janeiro and Niterói are located, and All Saints Bay, the site of Salvador; cities in these locations occupy small valleys or considerably narrow strips of land, but many poorer neighbourhoods occupy perilously steep ridges on the periphery. The coastal plain widens again in the South at the site of Patos Lagoon, one of the continent’s largest lagoons, and Mirím Lagoon, along the Uruguayan border. Drainage of Brazil Brazil is drained by the Amazon River, which is the centrepiece of the most extensive river system in the world, and by other systems that are notable in their own right—the Tocantins-Araguaia in the north, the Paraguay-Paraná-Plata in the south, and the São Francisco in the east and northeast. Numerous smaller rivers and streams drain directly eastward to the Atlantic from the Brazilian interior, but most are short, have steep gradients, and are not impounded for hydroelectric developments or suitable for waterborne traffic. The more navigable rivers of this group are the Paranaíba, between the states of Piauí and Maranhão, and the Jacuí in Rio Grande do Sul. canoe on the Negro River canoe on the Negro River The Amazon River rises from a point in the Peruvian Andes within 100 miles (160 km) of the Pacific Ocean, whence its course meanders some 4,000 miles (6,400 km) to the Atlantic. There it contributes as much as one-fifth of all of the Earth’s surface runoff from the continents to the sea. The river’s great tributaries include the Juruá, Purus, Madeira, Tapajós, and Xingu rivers on the southern side and the Negro River on the northern side (see photograph). Six tributaries exceed 1,000 miles (1,600 km) in length, and some carry more water individually than does North America’s Mississippi River, so that the Amazon’s annual discharge to the Atlantic is more than 10 times that of the Mississippi. Ships of considerable size navigate upstream to Manaus, and smaller vessels can reach Iquitos in eastern Peru, some 2,300 miles (3,700 km) from the sea. However, shipping is limited on the Amazonian tributaries, all of which are interrupted by falls and rapids where they descend from the highlands; none of the main effluents have been harnessed to produce hydroelectric power. The Paraguay-Paraná-Plata is the second of the great river systems of Brazil; it also drains large parts of Bolivia, Paraguay, Argentina, and Uruguay. In Brazil the system rises in the highlands of Mato Grosso, Goiás, and Minas Gerais states and flows southward in two sections—the Paraguay and Paraná (or Alto Paraná, as it is sometimes called before the two rivers join). The upper reaches of the Paraguay flow through the Pantanal and form part of the border between Brazil and Paraguay. The Alto Paraná collects numerous tributaries from southeastern Brazil, including the Paranaíba (not to be confused with the Paranaíba of the Northeast), Grande, Tietê, and Paranapanema. The Alto Paraná and Paraguay rivers unite southwest of Brazil, on the Argentina-Paraguay border, to form the Paraná proper, which eventually reaches the sea through the Río de la Plata estuary. Brazil’s two southernmost states are drained through the Uruguay River, which also flows into the Río de la Plata. In Brazil these rivers were navigable only for short stretches until they were dredged in the 1990s. Brazilians have built hydroelectric complexes and reservoirs on many tributaries of the system, including the Iguaçu, Paranapanema, Tietê, and Grande. The Tocantins-Araguaia river system rises in the highlands of Goiás and Mato Grosso states and discharges into the Pará River just south of the Amazon delta. The Tocantins, though popularly regarded as a tributary of the Amazon, is technically a separate system draining some 314,200 square miles (813,700 square km)—nearly one-tenth of Brazil’s national territory. The middle course of the Araguaia River, in a marshland some 220 miles (350 km) northwest of Brasília, temporarily divides into western and eastern branches to form the vast Bananal Island. The Araguaia joins the Tocantins after flowing northward another 600 miles (1,000 km). In the mid-1980s the Tucuruí Dam was built on the lower Tocantins, some 120 miles (200 km) southwest of Belém, in order to generate hydroelectric power for much of Pará and Maranhão as well as for the nearby Carajás mining complex. Actual continental drift of plates. Thematic map. BRITANNICA QUIZ Geography Fun Facts What was the name of the supercontinent that existed over 200 million years ago? On which continent did mankind’s upright ancestors originate? Unfold your mental road map and test your knowledge of geography in this quiz. The São Francisco River basin covers more than 249,000 square miles (645,000 square km) in eastern Brazil. The river rises in the highlands of western Minas Gerais and southern Goiás and flows more than 1,000 miles (1,600 km) northward before it turns eastward to the Atlantic. Shallow-draft riverboats ply the waters between Pirapora in Minas Gerais and Juàzeiro in Bahia, at the eastern end of the Sobradinho Reservoir. Hydroelectric installations harness the river’s energy near Paulo Afonso Falls. and at Juàzeiro. Only the watercourse below the falls is navigable for oceangoing ships. Climate of Brazil Brazil has a humid tropical and subtropical climate except for a drier area in the Northeast, sometimes called the drought quadrilateral or drought polygon, that extends from northern Bahia to the coast between Natal and São Luís; that zone receives about 15–30 inches (375–750 mm) of precipitation a year. Much of Brazil receives 40–70 inches (1,000–1,800 mm) annually, but precipitation often is much heavier in parts of the Amazon basin and the sea-facing rim of the Serra do Mar. The central parts of the Brazilian Highlands receive most of their precipitation during the summer months (November to April), often in the form of torrential downpours. Storms and floods may strike the Northeast at that time, depending on weather patterns, but the region may also experience prolonged drought. These shifting conditions make life difficult in the sertão, the backlands of the Northeast, and are a major cause for migration out of the region. Summer temperatures are largely uniform. In January most of the lowlands average roughly 79 °F (26 °C), and the highlands are a few degrees cooler, depending on elevation. The coast of Rio Grande do Sul is also somewhat cooler, averaging around 73 °F (23 °C), whereas the Northeast backland’s drought quadrilateral, the hottest region of the country, averages some 84 °F (29 °C), with daytime temperatures exceeding 100 °F (38 °C). However, the Northeast’s low humidity makes the heat less oppressive than in Rio de Janeiro. In the winter (May to October) the Brazilian Highlands are generally dry, and snow falls in only a few of the southernmost states. Regular frosts accompany winter air patterns from the south, and near-freezing temperatures can reach as far north as São Paulo. Cool, rainy weather may extend along the coast as far north as Recife and, in the west, to the Pantanal. Cool air occasionally spills over from the Paraguay lowlands into the western Amazon basin and may travel as far north as the Guyana border. Winter temperatures in the Amazon lowlands remain virtually unchanged from those of the summer months, but temperatures in the drought quadrilateral drop to about 79 °F (26 °C). Temperatures in the Brazilian Highlands average about 68 °F (20 °C) in the central and northern regions and are cooler toward the south: Curitiba, at an elevation of some 3,000 feet (900 metres), averages 57 °F (14 °C) in June and July. During those months the mean temperature at Porto Alegre is the same, but Rio de Janeiro is much hotter, averaging 73 °F (23 °C), partly because of the warm currents that bathe the entire Brazilian coast. Soils Brazil’s soils form a vast and intermixed pattern. A large band of nutrient-rich, deep reddish purple soil (terra roxa) lies in the Southeast and South between central Rio Grande do Sul and southern Minas Gerais, including large areas of Paraná and São Paulo states. That region contains Brazil’s most heavily farmed lands; however, terra roxa is not necessarily more productive than soils in other regions of the country. Soils in the Northeast also contain many nutrients, but agriculture is limited there because few fields are irrigated. Heavy rainfall has intensely leached many soils, leaving them with few nutrients but with an overabundance of insoluble iron and aluminum silicates. Laterites (soils dominated by iron oxides) and other infertile soils are especially prevalent in the Brazilian Highlands, where they can reach depths of as much as 90 feet (27 metres). Amazonian soils are also leached but not as deeply. In the terra firme of the rainforest, dead organic matter quickly decays and is recycled. However, once the overlying forest canopy is destroyed—e.g., by clear-cutting or burning—that regenerative cycle is interrupted, and many nutrients and organic matter are lost. More fertile Amazonian soils, interspersed between the zones of leached soil, include várzea alluvial deposits and terra preta dos indios (“black earth of the Indians”), which has developed throughout Amazonia on the sites of prehistoric settlements. Plant and animal life Highlands, coastal regions, and the Pantanal Most of the original ecosystems of the eastern highlands have been destroyed, including the once luxuriant hardwood forests that dominated the eastern seaboard and the formerly magnificent Paraná pine (Araucaria) forests that covered the southern plateaus. Monkeys, parrots, and other formerly common wildlife are now found only in zoos, private menageries, or small patches of forest that still support the original flora. Saltworks, marinas, and condominiums have replaced the former coastal waterways and swamps that once teemed with waterfowl and alligators. The Brazilian savannas in the semiarid Northeast have no massive herds of wild animals like their African counterparts. Jaguars and ocelots once inhabited the forest edges, but they have been extensively hunted by ranchers and are now endangered. The plant life varies considerably from coarse bunchgrasses to thorny, gnarled woods known as caatinga, the name derived from an Indian term meaning “white forest”; most caatinga are stunted, widely spaced, and intermingled with cacti. Woodlands known as agreste are found in slightly more humid areas. Most areas of agreste are located near the São Francisco River and on elevated slopes, where some remaining moisture in the air is wrung from the trade winds. Thorny trees in those regions may attain heights of up to 30 feet (9 metres) and form barriers with their interlocking branches that even leather-clad vaqueiros (“cowboys”) cannot penetrate. Artificial pastures and grain fields have largely replaced the native grasslands of Rio Grande do Sul. The Pantanal’s vast sloughs and watercourses support an abundance of flora and fauna, including the giant pirarucu, a fish that is herded into enclosures like underwater cattle pens until needed for food. Aquatic birds include ibis, herons, ducks, and migratory geese. There are numerous lizards and snakes, including deadly fer-de-lance (jararacas) and rattlesnakes. Among the larger mammals are armadillos and anteaters, which prey on ants and termites, whose nests may stand more than 6 feet (2 metres) high. Rheas (the South American relative of the ostrich), roadrunners (siriemas), and a variety of game birds, notably quail and partridge, are ubiquitous to the Pantanal’s higher ground and to the savannas of central Brazil. Amazonia The Amazon basin has the greatest variety of plant species on Earth and an abundance of animal life, in contrast to the scrublands that border it to the south and east. The Amazonian region includes vast areas of rainforest, widely dispersed grasslands, and mangrove swamps in the tidal flats of the delta. Individual plants of most species tend to be widely dispersed, so that blights and other natural threats cause them only limited damage. A typical acre (0.4 hectare) of Amazonian forest may contain 250 or more tree species (in contrast, an acre of woods in the northeastern United States might have only a dozen species). Glimpse Amazonian wildlife such as anacondas, tarantulas, leafcutter ants, scarlet ibis, and black skimmers Glimpse Amazonian wildlife such as anacondas, tarantulas, leafcutter ants, scarlet ibis, and black skimmersSee all videos for this article The crowns of giant Amazonian trees form a virtually closed canopy above several lower canopy layers, all of which combine to allow no more than 10 percent of the sun’s rays to reach the ground below. As a result, more plant and animal life is found in the canopy layers than on the ground. The tallest trees may rise to 150–200 feet (45–60 metres) and are festooned with a wide variety of epiphytes, bromeliads, and lianas, while their branches teem with animal life, including insects, snakes, tree frogs, numerous types of monkeys, and a bewildering variety of birds. Several hundred bird species nest in the immediate vicinity of the main Amazon channel, and alligators, anacondas, boa constrictors, capybaras, and several smaller reptiles and mammals are found along the riverbanks. In the waters are manatees, freshwater dolphins, and some 1,500 identified species of fish, including many types of piranhas (not all of them flesh-eating), electric eels, and some 450 species of catfish. There may also be hundreds of unidentified species. The Amazon is also home to the world’s largest freshwater turtle, the yellow-headed sideneck (Podocnemis), which weighs an average of 150 pounds (70 kg) and is extinct everywhere else except on the island of Madagascar. The turtles, once a mainstay of local Indians’ diets, are now endangered, but they continue to be hunted illegally for their meat. Conservation and ecology satellite imagery of deforestation satellite imagery of deforestation Dozens of parks, biological reserves, and other protected areas have been established in Brazil’s vast wildernesses, many of which remain pristine; however, state and federal governments have not adequately maintained many parklands, and some have been modified to allow for new highways or other construction projects. In addition, pollution has degraded Brazil’s rivers, threatening the water supplies of most of the population, and ecological disasters are common: in 2000 alone there were major oil spills in Rio de Janeiro’s Guanabara Bay and in the Iguaçu River. The Brazilian government’s environmental agencies regularly fine manufacturers and mining companies for failing to provide adequate environmental safeguards, but the fines are often small and oversight lax. São Paulo and some other cities have dangerous levels of smog, mainly because of motor vehicle emissions; in response, the government has promoted the use of fuels containing ethanol and pollution-control policies to improve air quality. In the late 20th century Curitiba, one of Brazil’s larger cities, rapidly decreased local air pollution and traffic congestion by developing an innovative busing system and other programs. Investigate how segments of Brazil's Amazon Rainforest are cleared for lumber, agriculture, and grazing Investigate how segments of Brazil's Amazon Rainforest are cleared for lumber, agriculture, and grazingSee all videos for this article Brazil’s first conservation law, issued in 1797, prohibited the burning or destruction of forests. The country’s first national parks were created in the late 1930s. From the mid-20th century, Brazilian and international environmental organizations have pressured the national government to curb damage to the Amazon rainforest, the Pantanal, and other ecosystems in Brazil. The government has become increasingly willing to address environmental issues, although widespread destruction has continued. The chief Brazilian environmental agency (Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis, or IBAMA) was created in 1989 in an attempt to reform Brazil’s conservation system. IBAMA, which operates under the Ministry of the Environment, oversees the use of renewable resources, enforces federal environmental laws, and coordinates the efforts of various agencies. However, IBAMA has had limited funding and personnel: in the late 20th century it employed only one staff member for every 110 square miles (290 square km) of federally protected land. In 1992 Rio de Janeiro hosted the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development (the Earth Summit), and a few years afterward Brazil and the major developed countries of the world issued a joint plan for the protection of the rainforest. (See also Amazon River: Ecological concerns.) Many state and national parks are located near urban centres, but most of the newer national parks lie in remote areas, particularly at the headwaters of Amazon tributaries and adjacent to biological reserves or Indian reservations; they are not intended for any great number of visitors. Among the more popular national parks are Itatiaia, Iguaçu, and Serra dos Órgãos, all of which were created in the 1930s. The larger national parks, which range in size from roughly 2,170 to 8,770 square miles (5,620 to 22,700 square km), include Neblina Peak (1979), Jaú (1980), Amazônia (Tapajós; 1974), Serra do Divisor (1989), Pacaás Novos (1979), and Cape Orange (1980), all in the North, and Xingu (1961) and Araguaia (on Bananal Island; 1959), both in the Central-West. In the mid-1980s the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) designated Iguaçu Falls a World Heritage site, followed by Serra da Capivara National Park in 1991 and two coastal regions in 1999, including the Serra do Mar in the Southeast and the Discovery Coast of Bahia state. Settlement patterns Population density of Brazil Population density of Brazil Frontier settlement and domestic migration have been features of Brazilian society since prehistoric times. The settlement of what is now Brazil began many thousands of years ago with the arrival of hunters and gatherers. At the time of European contact (in 1500), skilled farmers and fishers occupied the best lands of the Amazon and Paraguay river systems and most of the coastal plains, making up the bulk of the region’s two to six million native inhabitants. The Northeast coast The first European occupants of Brazil settled in the early 16th century among the coastal Indian villages or at the trading posts that they established at Salvador and at Cabo Frio (now in Rio de Janeiro state). They exchanged hardware and trinkets with the Indians for brazilwood, which was used for making a valuable, fire-coloured dye (brasa is Portuguese for “live coals”). Sugarcane began to dominate the colonial economy in the second half of the 16th century, giving rise to a scattering of urban centres, among which Olinda and Salvador were the most important. By that time the coastal Indian populations had been decimated, and slaves from Africa were being imported to work on the rapidly expanding plantations, which flourished particularly during the early and mid-17th century. The Southeast: mining and coffee During the first two centuries of Brazilian colonization, little attention was paid to the nearly inaccessible and seemingly unproductive highlands, although parties of explorers, known as bandeirantes, traversed them from time to time, capturing Indians for slaves and searching for precious metals and stones. Some of the bandeirantes settled in the interior and introduced small groups of cattle that eventually expanded into large herds; cattle raising came to dominate Brazil’s economy from the caatinga to the Pantanal. The first gold strike occurred in what is now Minas Gerais in 1695, and during the 18th century Brazil furnished a large portion of the world’s gold reserves. Diamonds were found in the same region in 1729, and visions of instant wealth attracted many plantation owners, with their slaves, from the Northeast. They spent money lavishly on the construction of fine towns, such as Ouro Prêto and Diamantina, and also invested in small industries to supply the mines and farms, which were soon producing a surplus for export. Brazil’s economic and political centre shifted from the Northeast to the Southeast after settlers built roads over the Serra do Mar to the coast, and the royal government transferred the colonial capital from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro in 1763. During the 19th century, great coffee plantations brought additional wealth into the region. The plantations developed chiefly in the Paraíba do Sul valley, which runs from eastern São Paulo to eastern Rio de Janeiro states. By the 1860s thousands of European immigrants, chiefly Italians, were flowing into the region, and two decades later their influx increased to some 40,000 per year. Rio de Janeiro’s population had passed 500,000 by the time the slaves were fully emancipated in 1888, whereas the city of São Paulo, the entrepôt for all of Brazil south and west of Minas Gerais, was still a modest town of 65,000. That situation changed as the flood of European immigrants began to arrive. Some of the newcomers worked as tenants on the coffee plantations that were expanding across São Paulo and northern Paraná states, while others established themselves on small freeholds along the southern coast and in the forests. The southernmost group remained physically and culturally isolated until after World War II, but the immigrants in São Paulo played a key role in building railroads and industries that gave the city and the state their preeminence in the Brazilian economy. The backlands and Amazonia During the same period, the Northeast’s large population struggled to advance economically in the face of drought, high rates of unemployment, and an archaic landholding system that concentrated all of the best coastal lands in the hands of a few powerful landowners. The Northeast remained economically depressed throughout much of the 19th and early 20th centuries, and economic booms elsewhere drew people out of the region. Among the first groups to migrate outward were large numbers of farmers who had settled in the sertão, or backlands, of the Northeast; they abandoned their lands in the 1870s and ’80s because of severe drought but found employment by resettling in the Amazon region to the north and west, where they tapped rubber trees. Northeasterners took part in another mass migration in the mid-20th century, primarily to the central interior of the country to help construct Brasília. Others began moving to the sparsely populated forests in the northern part of the Brazilian Highlands and to the frontier Amazonian zones of Rondônia and Acre. There they were joined by migrants from southern Brazil who had lost their livelihoods to the spread of mechanized agriculture. The entire Amazon region had an estimated population of merely 40,000 in the mid-19th century, but the population exploded after Northeasterners and other Brazilians poured into the area during the rubber boom, which reached its apex between 1879 and 1912. As a result, Belém and Manaus grew from somnolent villages into modest cities, and by the end of World War I the region’s population rose to some 1.4 million. In the late 1950s Japanese settlers began raising jute and black pepper along the lower Amazon, and in the process they created a temporary economic boom. Brazilians also developed manganese deposits in Amapá from the mid-20th century, and a pioneer zone appeared along a newly constructed highway between Belém and Brasília. Forestry, cattle raising, and gold mining spread deeper into the region at the expense of the rainforest; nevertheless, the Amazon region remained the most underpopulated part of Brazil, and government attempts to lure more settlers there had limited success. Brazil (Portuguese: Brasil; Brazilian Portuguese: [bɾaˈziw]),[nt 1] officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: República Federativa do Brasil),[9] is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At 8.5 million square kilometers (3,300,000 sq mi)[10] and with over 214 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area and the seventh most populous. Its capital is Brasília, and its most populous city is São Paulo. The federation is composed of the union of the 26 states and the Federal District. It is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language and the only one in the Americas;[11][12] one of the most multicultural and ethnically diverse nations, due to over a century of mass immigration from around the world;[13] and the most populous Roman Catholic-majority country. Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of 7,491 kilometers (4,655 mi).[14] It borders all other countries and territories in South America except Ecuador and Chile and covers 47.3% of the continent's land area.[15] Its Amazon basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to diverse wildlife, a variety of ecological systems, and extensive natural resources spanning numerous protected habitats.[14] This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, and is the subject of significant global interest, as environmental degradation through processes like deforestation has direct impacts on global issues like climate change and biodiversity loss. The territory which would become known as Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the discovered land for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808 when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro. In 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, now called the National Congress. Slavery was abolished in 1888. The country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup d'état. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, after which civilian governance resumed. Brazil's current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic.[16] Due to its rich culture and history, the country ranks thirteenth in the world by number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.[17] Brazil is a regional and middle power,[18][19][20] and is also classified as an emerging power.[21][22][23][24] It is considered an advanced emerging economy,[25] having the twelfth largest GDP in the world by nominal, and eighth by PPP measures, the largest in Latin America.[26][27] As an upper-middle income economy by the World Bank[28] and a newly industrialized country,[29] Brazil has the largest share of global wealth in South America and it is one of the world's major breadbaskets, being the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years.[30] However, the country maintains noticeable amounts of corruption, crime and social inequality. Brazil is a founding member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States and the Community of Portuguese Language Countries. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Pre-Cabraline era 2.2 Portuguese colonization 2.3 United Kingdom with Portugal 2.4 Independent empire 2.5 Early republic 2.6 Contemporary era 3 Geography 3.1 Topography and hydrography 3.2 Climate 3.3 Biodiversity and conservation 4 Government and politics 4.1 Law 4.2 Military 4.3 Foreign policy 4.4 Law enforcement and crime 4.5 Administrative divisions 5 Economy 5.1 Tourism 6 Infrastructure 6.1 Science and technology 6.2 Transport 6.3 Energy 6.4 Health 6.5 Education 6.6 Media and communication 7 Demographics 7.1 Race and ethnicity 7.2 Religion 7.3 Language 7.4 Urbanization 8 Culture 8.1 Architecture 8.2 Music 8.3 Literature 8.4 Cuisine 8.5 Cinema 8.6 Theatre 8.7 Visual arts 8.8 Sports 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Bibliography 13 Further reading 14 External links Etymology Main article: Name of Brazil The word "Brazil" likely comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast.[31] In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology "red like an ember," formed from brasa ("ember") and the suffix -il (from -iculum or -ilium).[32] As brazilwood produces a deep red dye, it was highly valued by the European textile industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil.[33] Throughout the 16th century, massive amounts of brazilwood were harvested by indigenous peoples (mostly Tupi) along the Brazilian coast, who sold the timber to European traders (mostly Portuguese, but also French) in return for assorted European consumer goods.[34] The official Portuguese name of the land, in original Portuguese records, was the "Land of the Holy Cross" (Terra da Santa Cruz),[35] but European sailors and merchants commonly called it simply the "Land of Brazil" (Terra do Brasil) because of the brazilwood trade.[36] The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name. Some early sailors called it the "Land of Parrots."[37] In the Guarani language, an official language of Paraguay, Brazil is called "Pindorama". This was the name the indigenous population gave to the region, meaning "land of the palm trees."[38] History Main article: History of Brazil For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Brazilian history. Pre-Cabraline era Rock art at Serra da Capivara National Park, one of the largest and oldest concentrations of prehistoric sites in the Americas.[39] Some of the earliest human remains found in the Americas, Luzia Woman, were found in the area of Pedro Leopoldo, Minas Gerais and provide evidence of human habitation going back at least 11,000 years.[40][41] The earliest pottery ever found in the Western Hemisphere was excavated in the Amazon basin of Brazil and radiocarbon dated to 8,000 years ago (6000 BC). The pottery was found near Santarém and provides evidence that the tropical forest region supported a complex prehistoric culture.[42] The Marajoara culture flourished on Marajó in the Amazon delta from 400 CE to 1400 CE, developing sophisticated pottery, social stratification, large populations, mound building, and complex social formations such as chiefdoms.[43] Around the time of the Portuguese arrival, the territory of current day Brazil had an estimated indigenous population of 7 million people,[44] mostly semi-nomadic, who subsisted on hunting, fishing, gathering, and migrant agriculture. The indigenous population of Brazil comprised several large indigenous ethnic groups (e.g., the Tupis, Guaranis, Gês, and Arawaks). The Tupí people were subdivided into the Tupiniquins and Tupinambás, and there were also many subdivisions of the other groups.[45] Before the arrival of the Europeans, the boundaries between these groups and their subgroups were marked by wars that arose from differences in culture, language and moral beliefs.[46] These wars also involved large-scale military actions on land and water, with cannibalistic rituals on prisoners of war.[47][48] While heredity had some weight, leadership was a status more won over time than assigned in succession ceremonies and conventions.[46] Slavery among the Indians had a different meaning than it had for Europeans, since it originated from a diverse socioeconomic organization, in which asymmetries were translated into kinship relations.[49] Portuguese colonization Main articles: Colonial Brazil, War of the Emboabas, and Inconfidência Mineira Depiction of Pedro Álvares Cabral landing in Porto Seguro in 1500, ushering in more than 300 years of Portuguese rule of Colonial Brazil. Following the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas, the land now called Brazil was claimed for the Portuguese Empire on 22 April 1500, with the arrival of the Portuguese fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral.[50] The Portuguese encountered indigenous peoples divided into several tribes, most of whom spoke languages of the Tupi–Guarani family and fought among themselves.[51] Though the first settlement was founded in 1532, colonization effectively began in 1534, when King John III of Portugal divided the territory into the fifteen private and autonomous Captaincy Colonies of Brazil.[52][53] However, the decentralized and unorganized tendencies of the captaincy colonies proved problematic, and in 1549 the Portuguese king restructured them into the Governorate General of Brazil in the city of Salvador, which became the capital of a single and centralized Portuguese colony in South America.[53][54] In the first two centuries of colonization, Indigenous and European groups lived in constant war, establishing opportunistic alliances in order to gain advantages against each other.[55][56][57][58] By the mid-16th century, cane sugar had become Brazil's most important export,[51][59] while slaves purchased in Sub-Saharan Africa in the slave market of Western Africa[60] (not only those from Portuguese allies of their colonies in Angola and Mozambique), had become its largest import,[61][62] to cope with plantations of sugarcane, due to increasing international demand for Brazilian sugar.[63][64] Portuguese Brazil received more than 2.8 million slaves from Africa between the years of 1500 to 1800.[65] Painting showing the arrest of Tiradentes; he was sentenced to death for his involvement in the best known movement for independence in Colonial Brazil. Painting of 1914. By the end of the 17th century, sugarcane exports began to decline[66] and the discovery of gold by bandeirantes in the 1690s would become the new backbone of the colony's economy, fostering a Brazilian Gold Rush[67] which attracted thousands of new settlers to Brazil from Portugal and all Portuguese colonies around the world.[68] This increased level of immigration in turn caused some conflicts between newcomers and old settlers.[69] Portuguese expeditions known as Bandeiras gradually advanced the Portugal colonial original frontiers in South America to approximately the current Brazilian borders.[70][71] In this era other European powers tried to colonize parts of Brazil, in incursions that the Portuguese had to fight, notably the French in Rio during the 1560s, in Maranhão during the 1610s, and the Dutch in Bahia and Pernambuco, during the Dutch–Portuguese War, after the end of Iberian Union.[72] The Portuguese colonial administration in Brazil had two objectives that would ensure colonial order and the monopoly of Portugal's wealthiest and largest colony: to keep under control and eradicate all forms of slave rebellion and resistance, such as the Quilombo of Palmares,[73] and to repress all movements for autonomy or independence, such as the Minas Conspiracy.[74] United Kingdom with Portugal Main article: United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves The Acclamation of King João VI of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves in Rio de Janeiro, 6 February 1818 In late 1807, Spanish and Napoleonic forces threatened the security of continental Portugal, causing Prince Regent João, in the name of Queen Maria I, to move the royal court from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro.[75] There they established some of Brazil's first financial institutions, such as its local stock exchanges[76] and its National Bank, additionally ending the Portuguese monopoly on Brazilian trade and opening Brazil to other nations. In 1809, in retaliation for being forced into exile, the Prince Regent ordered the Portuguese conquest of French Guiana.[77] With the end of the Peninsular War in 1814, the courts of Europe demanded that Queen Maria I and Prince Regent João return to Portugal, deeming it unfit for the head of an ancient European monarchy to reside in a colony. In 1815, to justify continuing to live in Brazil, where the royal court had thrived for six years, the Crown established the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves, thus creating a pluricontinental transatlantic monarchic state.[78] However, the leadership in Portugal, resentful of the new status of its larger colony, continued to demand the return of the court to Lisbon (see Liberal Revolution of 1820). In 1821, acceding to the demands of revolutionaries who had taken the city of Porto,[79] João VI departed for Lisbon. There he swore an oath to the new constitution, leaving his son, Prince Pedro de Alcântara, as Regent of the Kingdom of Brazil.[80] Independent empire Main articles: Independence of Brazil and Empire of Brazil Declaration of the Brazilian independence by Prince Pedro (later Emperor Pedro I) on 7 September 1822. Tensions between Portuguese and Brazilians increased and the Portuguese Cortes, guided by the new political regime imposed by the Liberal Revolution, tried to re-establish Brazil as a colony.[81] The Brazilians refused to yield, and Prince Pedro decided to stand with them, declaring the country's independence from Portugal on 7 September 1822.[82] A month later, Prince Pedro was declared the first Emperor of Brazil, with the royal title of Dom Pedro I, resulting in the founding of the Empire of Brazil.[83] The Brazilian War of Independence, which had already begun along this process, spread through the northern, northeastern regions and in Cisplatina province.[84] The last Portuguese soldiers surrendered on 8 March 1824;[85] Portugal officially recognized Brazilian independence on 29 August 1825.[86] On 7 April 1831, worn down by years of administrative turmoil and political dissent with both liberal and conservative sides of politics, including an attempt of republican secession[87] and unreconciled to the way that absolutists in Portugal had given in the succession of King John VI, Pedro I went to Portugal to reclaim his daughter's crown after abdicating the Brazilian throne in favor of his five-year-old son and heir (who thus became the Empire's second monarch, with the royal title of Dom Pedro II).[88] Pedro II, Emperor of Brazil between 1831 and 1889. As the new Emperor could not exert his constitutional powers until he came of age, a regency was set up by the National Assembly.[89] In the absence of a charismatic figure who could represent a moderate face of power, during this period a series of localized rebellions took place, such as the Cabanagem in Grão-Pará Province, the Malê Revolt in Salvador da Bahia, the Balaiada (Maranhão), the Sabinada (Bahia), and the Ragamuffin War, which began in Rio Grande do Sul and was supported by Giuseppe Garibaldi. These emerged from the dissatisfaction of the provinces with the central power, coupled with old and latent social tensions peculiar to a vast, slaveholding and newly independent nation state.[90] This period of internal political and social upheaval, which included the Praieira revolt in Pernambuco, was overcome only at the end of the 1840s, years after the end of the regency, which occurred with the premature coronation of Pedro II in 1841.[91] During the last phase of the monarchy, internal political debate centered on the issue of slavery. The Atlantic slave trade was abandoned in 1850,[92] as a result of the British Aberdeen Act, but only in May 1888, after a long process of internal mobilization and debate for an ethical and legal dismantling of slavery in the country, was the institution formally abolished with the approval of the Golden Law.[93] The foreign-affairs policies of the monarchy dealt with issues with the countries of the Southern Cone with whom Brazil had borders. Long after the Cisplatine War that resulted in the independence of Uruguay,[94] Brazil won three international wars during the 58-year reign of Pedro II. These were the Platine War, the Uruguayan War and the devastating Paraguayan War, the largest war effort in Brazilian history.[95][96] Although there was no desire among the majority of Brazilians to change the country's form of government,[97] on 15 November 1889, in disagreement with the majority of the Imperial Army officers, as well as with rural and financial elites (for different reasons), the monarchy was overthrown by a military coup.[98] A few days later, the national flag was replaced with a new design that included the national motto "Ordem e Progresso", influenced by positivism. 15 November is now Republic Day, a national holiday.[99] Early republic Main articles: First Brazilian Republic, Vargas Era § Estado Novo, and Second Brazilian Republic Proclamation of the Republic, 1893, oil on canvas by Benedito Calixto Getúlio Vargas (center) during the Revolution of 1930 The early republican government was nothing more than a military dictatorship, with the army dominating affairs both in Rio de Janeiro and in the states. Freedom of the press disappeared and elections were controlled by those in power.[100] Not until 1894, following an economic crisis and a military one, did civilians take power, remaining there until October 1930.[101][102][103] If in relation to its foreign policy, the country in this first republican period maintained a relative balance characterized by a success in resolving border disputes with neighboring countries,[104] only broken by the Acre War (1899–1902) and its involvement in World War I (1914–1918),[105][106][107] followed by a failed attempt to exert a prominent role in the League of Nations;[108] Internally, from the crisis of Encilhamento[109][110][111] and the Armada Revolts,[112] a prolonged cycle of financial, political and social instability began until the 1920s, keeping the country besieged by various rebellions, both civilian[113][114][115] and military.[116][117][118] Little by little, a cycle of general instability sparked by these crises undermined the regime to such an extent that in the wake of the murder of his running mate, the defeated opposition presidential candidate Getúlio Vargas, supported by most of the military, successfully led the Revolution of 1930.[119][120] Vargas and the military were supposed to assume power temporarily, but instead closed down Congress, extinguished the Constitution, ruled with emergency powers and replaced the states' governors with his own supporters.[121][122] Soldiers of the FEB, the only Latin American military force in World War II, in Massarosa, Italy, 1944. In the 1930s, three failed attempts to remove Vargas and his supporters from power occurred. The first was the Constitutionalist Revolution in 1932, led by the Paulista oligarchy. The second was a Communist uprising in November 1935, and the last one a putsch attempt by local fascists in May 1938.[123][124][125] The 1935 uprising created a security crisis in which Congress transferred more power to the executive branch. The 1937 coup d'état resulted in the cancellation of the 1938 election and formalized Vargas as dictator, beginning the Estado Novo era. During this period, government brutality and censorship of the press increased.[126] Throughout World War II, Brazil remained neutral until August 1942 Brazil suffered retaliation by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy in a strategic dispute over the South Atlantic, and, therefore, entered on the allied side.[127][128][129] In addition to its participation in the battle of the Atlantic, Brazil also sent an expeditionary force to fight in the Italian campaign.[130] With the Allied victory in 1945 and the end of the fascist regimes in Europe, Vargas's position became unsustainable and he was swiftly overthrown in another military coup, with democracy "reinstated" by the same army that had ended it 15 years earlier.[131] Vargas committed suicide in August 1954 amid a political crisis, after having returned to power by election in 1950.[132][133] Contemporary era Main articles: Military dictatorship in Brazil and History of Brazil since 1985 Construction of the building of National Congress of Brazil in Brasília, the new capital, 1959 M41s along the Avenida Presidente Vargas during the military government Several brief interim governments followed Vargas's suicide.[134] Juscelino Kubitschek became president in 1956 and assumed a conciliatory posture towards the political opposition that allowed him to govern without major crises.[135] The economy and industrial sector grew remarkably,[136] but his greatest achievement was the construction of the new capital city of Brasília, inaugurated in 1960.[137] Kubitschek's successor, Jânio Quadros, resigned in 1961 less than a year after taking office.[138] His vice-president, João Goulart, assumed the presidency, but aroused strong political opposition[139] and was deposed in April 1964 by a coup that resulted in a military dictatorship.[140] The new regime was intended to be transitory[141] but gradually closed in on itself and became a full dictatorship with the promulgation of the Fifth Institutional Act in 1968.[142] Oppression was not limited to those who resorted to guerrilla tactics to fight the regime, but also reached institutional opponents, artists, journalists and other members of civil society,[143][144] inside and outside the country through the infamous "Operation Condor".[145][146] Like other brutal authoritarian regimes, due to an economic boom, known as an "economic miracle", the regime reached a peak in popularity in the early 1970s.[147] Slowly, however, the wear and tear of years of dictatorial power that had not slowed the repression, even after the defeat of the leftist guerrillas,[148] plus the inability to deal with the economic crises of the period and popular pressure, made an opening policy inevitable, which from the regime side was led by Generals Ernesto Geisel and Golbery do Couto e Silva.[149] With the enactment of the Amnesty Law in 1979, Brazil began a slow return to democracy, which was completed during the 1980s.[91] Ulysses Guimarães holding the Constitution of 1988 in his hands Coin of 1 real commemorating 25 years of Real Plan, which brought stability to the Brazilian economy after years of hyperinflation. Civilians returned to power in 1985 when José Sarney assumed the presidency. He became unpopular during his tenure through failure to control the economic crisis and hyperinflation he inherited from the military regime.[150] Sarney's unsuccessful government led to the election in 1989 of the almost-unknown Fernando Collor, subsequently impeached by the National Congress in 1992.[151] Collor was succeeded by his vice-president, Itamar Franco, who appointed Fernando Henrique Cardoso Minister of Finance. In 1994, Cardoso produced a highly successful Plano Real,[152] that, after decades of failed economic plans made by previous governments attempting to curb hyperinflation, finally stabilized the Brazilian economy.[153][154] Cardoso won the 1994 election, and again in 1998.[155] The peaceful transition of power from Cardoso to his main opposition leader, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (elected in 2002 and re-elected in 2006), was seen as proof that Brazil had achieved a long-sought political stability.[156][157] However, sparked by indignation and frustrations accumulated over decades from corruption, police brutality, inefficiencies of the political establishment and public service, numerous peaceful protests erupted in Brazil from the middle of first term of Dilma Rousseff, who had succeeded Lula after winning election in 2010 and again in 2014 by narrow margins.[158][159] Rousseff was impeached by the Brazilian Congress in 2016, halfway into her second term,[160][161] and replaced by her Vice-president Michel Temer, who assumed full presidential powers after Rousseff's impeachment was accepted on 31 August. Large street protests for and against her took place during the impeachment process.[162] The charges against her were fueled by political and economic crises along with evidence of involvement with politicians (from all the primary political parties) in several bribery and tax evasion schemes.[citation needed] In 2017, the Supreme Court requested the investigation of 71 Brazilian lawmakers and nine ministers of President Michel Temer's cabinet who were allegedly linked to the Petrobras corruption scandal.[163] President Temer himself was also accused of corruption.[164] According to a 2018 poll, 62% of the population said that corruption was Brazil's biggest problem.[165] In the fiercely disputed 2018 elections, the controversial conservative candidate Jair Bolsonaro of the Social Liberal Party (PSL) was elected president, winning in the second round Fernando Haddad, of the Workers Party (PT), with the support of 55.13% of the valid votes.[166] In the early 2020s, Brazil became one of the hardest hit countries during the -19 pandemic, receiving the second-highest death toll worldwide after the United States.[167] Experts have largely blamed the situation on the leadership of President Bolsonaro, who throughout the pandemic has repeatedly downplayed the threat of -19 and dissuaded states and cities from enforcing quarantine measures, prioritizing the nation's economy.[167][168][169] Geography Main article: Geography of Brazil Topographic map of Brazil Brazil occupies a large area along the eastern coast of South America and includes much of the continent's interior,[170] sharing land borders with Uruguay to the south; Argentina and Paraguay to the southwest; Bolivia and Peru to the west; Colombia to the northwest; and Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and France (French overseas region of French Guiana) to the north. It shares a border with every South American country except Ecuador and Chile.[14] It also encompasses a number of oceanic archipelagos, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz.[14] Its size, relief, climate, and natural resources make Brazil geographically diverse.[170] Including its Atlantic islands, Brazil lies between latitudes 6°N and 34°S, and longitudes 28° and 74°W.[14] Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world, and third largest in the Americas, with a total area of 8,515,767.049 km2 (3,287,956 sq mi),[171] including 55,455 km2 (21,411 sq mi) of water. Brazil is also the longest country in the world, spanning 4,395 km (2,731 mi) from north to south,[14] and the only country in the world that has the equator and the Tropic of Capricorn running through it.[14] It spans four time zones; from UTC−5 comprising the state of Acre and the westernmost portion of Amazonas, to UTC−4 in the western states, to UTC−3 in the eastern states (the national time) and UTC−2 in the Atlantic islands.[172] Topography and hydrography Serra dos Órgãos National Park, Teresópolis, Rio de Janeiro state Xingó canyon in São Francisco River, Delmiro Gouveia, Alagoas Brazilian topography is also diverse and includes hills, mountains, plains, highlands, and scrublands. Much of the terrain lies between 200 meters (660 ft) and 800 meters (2,600 ft) in elevation.[173] The main upland area occupies most of the southern half of the country.[173] The northwestern parts of the plateau consist of broad, rolling terrain broken by low, rounded hills.[173] The southeastern section is more rugged, with a complex mass of ridges and mountain ranges reaching elevations of up to 1,200 meters (3,900 ft).[173] These ranges include the Mantiqueira and Espinhaço mountains and the Serra do Mar.[173] In the north, the Guiana Highlands form a major drainage divide, separating rivers that flow south into the Amazon Basin from rivers that empty into the Orinoco River system, in Venezuela, to the north. The highest point in Brazil is the Pico da Neblina at 2,994 meters (9,823 ft), and the lowest is the Atlantic Ocean.[14] Brazil has a dense and complex system of rivers, one of the world's most extensive, with eight major drainage basins, all of which drain into the Atlantic.[174] Major rivers include the Amazon (the world's second-longest river and the largest in terms of volume of water), the Paraná and its major tributary the Iguaçu (which includes the Iguazu Falls), the Negro, São Francisco, Xingu, Madeira and Tapajós rivers.[174] Climate Main article: Climate of Brazil Brazil map of Köppen climate classification zones The climate of Brazil comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a large area and varied topography, but most of the country is tropical.[14] According to the Köppen system, Brazil hosts six major climatic subtypes: desert, equatorial, tropical, semiarid, oceanic and subtropical. The different climatic conditions produce environments ranging from equatorial rainforests in the north and semiarid deserts in the northeast, to temperate coniferous forests in the south and tropical savannas in central Brazil.[175] Many regions have starkly different microclimates.[176][177] An equatorial climate characterizes much of northern Brazil. There is no real dry season, but there are some variations in the period of the year when most rain falls.[175] Temperatures average 25 °C (77 °F),[177] with more significant temperature variation between night and day than between seasons.[176] Over central Brazil rainfall is more seasonal, characteristic of a savanna climate.[176] This region is as extensive as the Amazon basin but has a very different climate as it lies farther south at a higher altitude.[175] In the interior northeast, seasonal rainfall is even more extreme.[178] The semiarid climatic region generally receives less than 800 millimeters (31.5 in) of rain,[178] most of which generally falls in a period of three to five months of the year[179] and occasionally less than this, creating long periods of drought.[176] Brazil's 1877–78 Grande Seca (Great Drought), the worst in Brazil's history,[180] caused approximately half a million deaths.[181] A similarly devastating drought occurred in 1915.[182] South of Bahia, near the coasts, and more southerly most of the state of São Paulo, the distribution of rainfall changes, with rain falling throughout the year.[175] The south enjoys subtropical conditions, with cool winters and average annual temperatures not exceeding 18 °C (64.4 °F);[177] winter frosts and snowfall are not rare in the highest areas.[175][176] In 2020 the government of Brazil pledged to reduce its annual greenhouse gases emissions by 43% by 2030. It also set as indicative target of reaching carbon neutrality by 2060 if the country gets 10 billion dollars per year.[183] Biodiversity and conservation Main articles: Wildlife of Brazil, Deforestation in Brazil, Conservation in Brazil, and Protected areas of Brazil The majority of Amazon rainforest, the most biodiverse rainforest in the world, is contained within Brazil, with 60% of the forest. Female pantanal jaguar in Piquirí River, Mato Grosso. Pantanal is the world's largest tropical wetland area. The wildlife of Brazil comprises all naturally occurring animals, plants, and fungi in the South American country. Home to 60% of the Amazon Rainforest, which accounts for approximately one-tenth of all species in the world,[184] Brazil is considered to have the greatest biodiversity of any country on the planet. It has the most known species of plants (55,000), freshwater fish (3,000), and mammals (over 689).[185] It also ranks third on the list of countries with the most bird species (1,832) and second with the most reptile species (744).[185] The number of fungal species is unknown but is large.[186] Brazil is second only to Indonesia as the country with the most endemic species.[187] Brazil's large territory comprises different ecosystems, such as the Amazon rainforest, recognized as having the greatest biological diversity in the world,[188] with the Atlantic Forest and the Cerrado, sustaining the greatest biodiversity.[189] In the south, the Araucaria pine forest grows under temperate conditions.[189] The rich wildlife of Brazil reflects the variety of natural habitats. Scientists estimate that the total number of plant and animal species in Brazil could approach four million, mostly invertebrates.[189] Larger mammals include carnivores pumas, jaguars, ocelots, rare bush dogs, and foxes, and herbivores peccaries, tapirs, anteaters, sloths, opossums, and armadillos. Deer are plentiful in the south, and many species of New World monkeys are found in the northern rain forests.[189][190] Annually, Brazil's tropical old-growth forest loss greatly exceeds that of other world nations.[191] Cumulatively, Brazil has the highest percentage of deforested or highly degraded rainforest of any Amazonia nation.[192] By 2013, Brazil's "dramatic policy-driven reduction in Amazon Basin deforestation" was a "global exception in terms of forest change", according to scientific journal Science.[193]: 852  From 2003 to 2011, compared to all other countries in the world, Brazil had the "largest decline in annual forest loss", as indicated in the study using high-resolution satellite maps showing global forest cover changes.[193]: 850  The annual loss of forest cover decreased from a 2003–2004 record high of more than 40,000 square kilometers (4,000×103 ha; 9.9×106 acres; 15,000 sq mi) to a 2010–2011 low of under 20,000 square kilometers (2,000×103 ha; 4.9×106 acres; 7,700 sq mi),[193]: 850  reversing widespread deforestation from the 1970s to 2003.[193]: 852  In 2017, preserved native vegetation occupies 61% of the Brazilian territory. Agriculture occupied only 8% of the national territory and pastures 19.7%.[194] In terms of comparison, in 2019, although 43% of the entire European continent has forests, only 3% of the total forest area in Europe is of native forest.[195] Brazil's tropical primary (old-growth) forest loss, however, also exceeds that of other countries.[191] Brazil has a strong interest in forest conservation as its agriculture sector directly depends on its forests.[196] Government and politics Main articles: Politics of Brazil, Federal government of Brazil, and Elections in Brazil Palácio do Planalto, the official workplace of the President of Brazil. National Congress, seat of the legislative branch. The form of government is a democratic federative republic, with a presidential system.[16] The president is both head of state and head of government of the Union and is elected for a four-year term,[16] with the possibility of re-election for a second successive term. The current president is Jair Bolsonaro. The previous president, Michel Temer, replaced Dilma Rousseff after her impeachment.[197] The President appoints the Ministers of State, who assist in government.[16] Legislative houses in each political entity are the main source of law in Brazil. The National Congress is the Federation's bicameral legislature, consisting of the Chamber of Deputies and the Federal Senate. Judiciary authorities exercise jurisdictional duties almost exclusively. Brazil is a democracy, according to the Democracy Index 2010.[198] The political-administrative organization of the Federative Republic of Brazil comprises the Union, the states, the Federal District, and the municipalities.[16] The Union, the states, the Federal District, and the municipalities, are the "spheres of government". The federation is set on five fundamental principles:[16] sovereignty, citizenship, dignity of human beings, the social values of labor and freedom of enterprise, and political pluralism. The classic tripartite branches of government (executive, legislative and judicial under a checks and balances system) are formally established by the Constitution.[16] The executive and legislative are organized independently in all three spheres of government, while the judiciary is organized only at the federal and state and Federal District spheres. All members of the executive and legislative branches are directly elected.[199][200][201] For most of its democratic history, Brazil has had a multi-party system, proportional representation. Voting is compulsory for the literate between 18 and 70 years old and optional for illiterates and those between 16 and 18 or beyond 70.[16] The country has more than 40 active political parties. Fifteen political parties are represented in Congress. It is common for politicians to switch parties, and thus the proportion of congressional seats held by particular parties changes regularly.[202] Almost all governmental and administrative functions are exercised by authorities and agencies affiliated to the Executive. Law Main article: Law of Brazil Supreme Federal Court of Brazil serves primarily as the Constitutional Court of the country Brazilian law is based on the civil law legal system[203] and civil law concepts prevail over common law practice. Most of Brazilian law is codified, although non-codified statutes also represent a substantial part, playing a complementary role. Court decisions set out interpretive guidelines; however, they are seldom binding on other specific cases. Doctrinal works and the works of academic jurists have strong influence in law creation and in law cases. Judges and other judicial officials are appointed after passing entry exams.[199] The legal system is based on the Federal Constitution, promulgated on 5 October 1988, and the fundamental law of Brazil. All other legislation and court decisions must conform to its rules.[204] As of July 2022, there have been 124 amendments.[205] States have their own constitutions, which must not contradict the Federal Constitution.[206] Municipalities and the Federal District have "organic laws" (leis orgânicas), which act in a similar way to constitutions.[207] Legislative entities are the main source of statutes, although in certain matters judiciary and executive bodies may enact legal norms.[16] Jurisdiction is administered by the judiciary entities, although in rare situations the Federal Constitution allows the Federal Senate to pass on legal judgments.[16] There are also specialized military, labor, and electoral courts.[16] The highest court is the Supreme Federal Court. This system has been criticized over the last few decades for the slow pace of decision-making. Lawsuits on appeal may take several years to resolve, and in some cases more than a decade elapses before definitive rulings.[208] Nevertheless, the Supreme Federal Tribunal was the first court in the world to transmit its sessions on television, and also via YouTube.[209][210] In December 2009, the Supreme Court adopted Twitter to display items on the day planner of the ministers, to inform the daily actions of the Court and the most important decisions made by them.[211] Military Main article: Brazilian Armed Forces Brazilian Air Force Saab Gripen NG Brazilian Navy's flagship PHM Atlântico The armed forces of Brazil are the largest in Latin America by active personnel and the largest in terms of military equipment.[212] The country was considered the 9th largest military power on the planet in 2021.[213][214] It consists of the Brazilian Army (including the Army Aviation Command), the Brazilian Navy (including the Marine Corps and Naval Aviation), and the Brazilian Air Force. Brazil's conscription policy gives it one of the world's largest military forces, estimated at more than 1.6 million reservists annually.[215] Numbering close to 236,000 active personnel,[216] the Brazilian Army has the largest number of armored vehicles in South America, including armored transports and tanks.[217] It is also unique in Latin America for its large, elite forces specializing in unconventional missions, the Brazilian Special Operations Command,[218][219][220] and the versatile Strategic Rapid Action Force, made up of highly mobilized and prepared Special Operations Brigade, Infantry Brigade Parachutist,[221][222] 1st Jungle Infantry Battalion (Airmobile)[223] and 12th Brigade Light Infantry (Airmobile)[224] able to act anywhere in the country, on short notice, to counter external aggression.[225] The states' Military Police and the Military Firefighters Corps are described as an ancillary forces of the Army by the constitution, but are under the control of each state's governor.[16] Brazil's navy once operated some of the most powerful warships in the world with the two Minas Geraes-class dreadnoughts, sparking a naval arms race between Argentina, Brazil, and Chile.[226] Today, it is a green water force and has a group of specialized elite in retaking ships and naval facilities, GRUMEC, unit specially trained to protect Brazilian oil platforms along its coast.[227] As of 2022, it is the only navy in Latin America that operates an aircraft carrier, NAM Atlântico, and one of twelve navies in the world to operate or have one under construction.[228][229] The Air Force is the largest in Latin America and has about 700 crewed aircraft in service and effective about 67,000 personnel.[230] Brazil has not been invaded since 1865 during the Paraguayan War.[231] Additionally, Brazil has no contested territorial disputes with any of its neighbors[232] and neither does it have rivalries, like Chile and Bolivia have with each other.[233][234] The Brazilian military has also three times intervened militarily to overthrow the Brazilian government.[235] It has built a tradition of participating in UN peacekeeping missions such as in Haiti, East Timor and Central African Republic.[236] Foreign policy Main article: Foreign relations of Brazil Itamaraty Palace, the seat of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Brazil's international relations are based on Article 4 of the Federal Constitution, which establishes non-intervention, self-determination, international cooperation and the peaceful settlement of conflicts as the guiding principles of Brazil's relationship with other countries and multilateral organizations.[237] According to the Constitution, the President has ultimate authority over foreign policy, while the Congress is tasked with reviewing and considering all diplomatic nominations and international treaties, as well as legislation relating to Brazilian foreign policy.[238] Brazil's foreign policy is a by-product of the country's position as a regional power in Latin America, a leader among developing countries, and an emerging world power.[239] Brazilian foreign policy has generally been based on the principles of multilateralism, peaceful dispute settlement, and non-intervention in the affairs of other countries.[240] Brazil is a founding member state of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), also known as the Lusophone Commonwealth, an international organization and political association of Lusophone nations across four continents, where Portuguese is an official language. An increasingly well-developed tool of Brazil's foreign policy is providing aid as a donor to other developing countries.[241] Brazil does not just use its growing economic strength to provide financial aid, but it also provides high levels of expertise and most importantly of all, a quiet non-confrontational diplomacy to improve governance levels.[241] Total aid is estimated to be around $1 billion per year, which includes.[241] In addition, Brazil already managed a peacekeeping mission in Haiti ($350 million) and makes in-kind contributions to the World Food Programme ($300 million).[241] This is in addition to humanitarian assistance and contributions to multilateral development agencies. The scale of this aid places it on par with China and India.[241] The Brazilian South-South aid has been described as a "global model in waiting".[242] Law enforcement and crime Main articles: Law enforcement in Brazil and Crime in Brazil Field agents of the Federal Police's Tactical Operations Command. In Brazil, the Constitution establishes six different police agencies for law enforcement: Federal Police Department, Federal Highway Police, Federal Railroad Police, Federal, District and State Penal Police (included by the Constitutional Amendment No. 104, of 2019),Military Police and Civil Police. Of these, the first three are affiliated with federal authorities, the last two are subordinate to state governments and the Penal Police can be subordinated to the federal or state/district government. All police forces are the responsibility of the executive branch of any of the federal or state powers.[16] The National Public Security Force also can act in public disorder situations arising anywhere in the country.[243] The country still has above-average levels of violent crime and particularly high levels of gun violence and homicide. In 2012, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated the number of 32 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants, one of the highest rates of homicide of the world.[244] The number considered tolerable by the WHO is about 10 homicides per 100,000 inhabitants.[245] In 2018, Brazil had a record 63,880 murders.[246] However, there are differences between the crime rates in the Brazilian states. While in São Paulo the homicide rate registered in 2013 was 10.8 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants, in Alagoas it was 64.7 homicides per 100,000 inhabitants.[247] Brazil also has high levels of incarceration and the third largest prison population in the world (behind only China and the United States), with an estimated total of approximately 700,000 prisoners around the country (June 2014), an increase of about 300% compared to the index registered in 1992.[248] The high number of prisoners eventually overloaded the Brazilian prison system, leading to a shortfall of about 200,000 accommodations.[249] Administrative divisions Atlantic OceanPacific OceanNorthNortheastCentral-WestSoutheastSouthAcreAmazonasParáRoraimaAmapáRondôniaTocantinsMaranhãoBahiaPiauíCearáRio Grande do NorteParaíbaPernambucoAlagoasSergipeMato GrossoMato Grosso do SulFederal DistrictGoiásMinas GeraisSão PauloRio de JaneiroEspírito SantoParanáSanta CatarinaRio Grande do SulArgentinaBoliviaChileColombiaFrench GuianaGuyanaParaguayPeruSurinameUruguayVenezuelaStates of Brazil and Regions of Brazil Main articles: States of Brazil and Municipalities of Brazil See also: Regions of Brazil Brazil is a federation composed of 26 states, one federal district, and the 5,570 municipalities.[16] States have autonomous administrations, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the Federal government. They have a governor and a unicameral legislative body elected directly by their voters. They also have independent Courts of Law for common justice. Despite this, states have much less autonomy to create their own laws than in the United States. For example, criminal and civil laws can be voted by only the federal bicameral Congress and are uniform throughout the country.[16] The states and the federal district may be grouped into regions: Northern, Northeast, Central-West, Southeast and Southern. The Brazilian regions are merely geographical, not political or administrative divisions, and they do not have any specific form of government. Although defined by law, Brazilian regions are useful mainly for statistical purposes, and also to define the distribution of federal funds in development projects. Municipalities, as the states, have autonomous administrations, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the Union and state government.[16] Each has a mayor and an elected legislative body, but no separate Court of Law. Indeed, a Court of Law organized by the state can encompass many municipalities in a single justice administrative division called comarca (county). Economy Main article: Economy of Brazil See also: Brazilian real, Agriculture in Brazil, Mining in Brazil, and Industry in Brazil A proportional representation of Brazil exports, 2019 São Paulo, the largest financial centre in Brazil Soybean crop in Rondonópolis, Mato Grosso.[250] The KC-390, developed by Embraer, the third largest producer of civil aircraft, after Boeing and Airbus.[251] Brazil's upper-middle income mixed market economy is rich in natural resources.[252] It has the largest national economy in Latin America, the tenth-largest economy in the world by nominal GDP, and the ninth-largest by PPP. After rapid growth in preceding decades, the country entered an ongoing recession in 2014 amid a political corruption scandal and nationwide protests. A developing country, Brazil has a labor force of roughly 100 million,[253] which is the world's fifth-largest; with a high unemployment rate of 14.4% as of 2021.[254] Its foreign exchange reserves are the tenth-highest in the world.[255] The B3 in São Paulo is the largest stock exchange in Brazil. In regards to poverty, about 1.9% of the total population lives at $2.15 a day,[256] while about 19% live at $6.85 a day.[257] Brazil's economy suffers from endemic corruption and high income inequality.[258] The Brazilian real is the national currency. Brazil's diversified economy includes agriculture, industry, and a wide range of services.[259] The large service sector accounts for about 72.7% of total GDP, followed by the industrial sector (20.7%), while the agriculture sector is by far the smallest, making up 6.6% of total GDP.[260] Brazil is one of the largest producers of various agricultural commodities,[261] and also has a large cooperative sector that provides 50% of the food in the country.[262] It has been the world's largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years.[30] Brazil is the world's largest producer of sugarcane, soy, coffee and orange; is one of the top 5 producers of maize, cotton, lemon, tobacco, pineapple, banana, beans, coconut, watermelon and papaya; and is one of the top 10 world producers of cocoa, cashew, mango, rice, tomato, sorghum, tangerine, avocado, persimmon, and guava, among others. Regarding livestock, it is one of the 5 largest producers of chicken meat, beef, pork and cow's milk in the world.[263] In the mining sector, Brazil is among the largest producers of iron ore, copper, gold,[264] bauxite, manganese, tin, niobium,[265] and nickel. In terms of precious stones, Brazil is the world's largest producer of amethyst, topaz, agate and one of the main producers of tourmaline, emerald, aquamarine, garnet and opal.[266][267] The country is a major exporter of soy, iron ore, pulp (cellulose), maize, beef, chicken meat, soybean meal, sugar, coffee, tobacco, cotton, orange juice, footwear, airplanes, cars, vehicle parts, gold, ethanol, semi-finished iron, among other products.[268][269] Brazil is the world's 24th-largest exporter and 26th-largest importer as of 2021.[270][271] China is its largest trading partner, accounting for 32% of the total trade. Other large trading partners include the United States, Argentina, the Netherlands and Canada.[272] Its automotive industry is the eighth-largest in the world.[273] In the food industry, Brazil was the second-largest exporter of processed foods in the world in 2019.[274] The country was the second-largest producer of pulp in the world and the eighth-largest producer of paper in 2016.[275] In the footwear industry, Brazil was the fourth-largest producer in 2019.[276] It was also the ninth-largest producer of steel in the world.[277][278][279] In 2018, the chemical industry of Brazil was the eighth-largest in the world.[280][281][282] Although, it was among the five largest world producers in 2013, Brazil's textile industry is very little integrated into world trade.[283] The tertiary sector (trade and services) represented 75.8% of the country's GDP in 2018, according to the IBGE. The service sector was responsible for 60% of GDP and trade for 13%. It covers a wide range of activities: commerce, accommodation and catering, transport, communications, financial services, real estate activities and services provided to businesses, public administration (urban cleaning, sanitation, etc.) and other services such as education, social and health services, research and development, sports activities, etc., since it consists of activities complementary to other sectors.[284][285] Micro and small businesses represent 30% of the country's GDP. In the commercial sector, for example, they represent 53% of the GDP within the activities of the sector.[286] Tourism Main article: Tourism in Brazil Iguazu Falls on the Argentina–Brazil border The colonial city of Ouro Preto, a World Heritage Site Tourism in Brazil is a growing sector and key to the economy of several regions of the country. The country had 6.36 million visitors in 2015, ranking in terms of the international tourist arrivals as the main destination in South America and second in Latin America after Mexico.[287] Revenues from international tourists reached US$6 billion in 2010, showing a recovery from the 2008–2009 economic crisis.[288] Historical records of 5.4 million visitors and US$6.8 billion in receipts were reached in 2011.[289][290] In the list of world tourist destinations, in 2018, Brazil was the 48th most visited country, with 6.6 million tourists (and revenues of 5.9 billion dollars).[291] Natural areas are its most popular tourism product, a combination of ecotourism with leisure and recreation, mainly sun and beach, and adventure travel, as well as cultural tourism. Among the most popular destinations are the Amazon Rainforest, beaches and dunes in the Northeast Region, the Pantanal in the Center-West Region, beaches at Rio de Janeiro and Santa Catarina, cultural tourism in Minas Gerais and business trips to São Paulo.[292] In terms of the 2015 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index (TTCI), which is a measurement of the factors that make it attractive to develop business in the travel and tourism industry of individual countries, Brazil ranked in the 28st place at the world's level, third in the Americas, after Canada and United States.[293][294] Brazil's main competitive advantages are its natural resources, which ranked 1st on this criteria out of all countries considered, and ranked 23rd for its cultural resources, due to its many World Heritage Sites. The TTCI report notes Brazil's main weaknesses: its ground transport infrastructure remains underdeveloped (ranked 116th), with the quality of roads ranking in 105th place; and the country continues to suffer from a lack of price competitiveness (ranked 114th), due in part to high ticket taxes and airport charges, as well as high prices and high taxation. Safety and security have improved significantly: 75th in 2011, up from 128th in 2008.[294] Infrastructure Science and technology Main article: Science and technology in Brazil VLS-1 at the Alcântara Launch Center of the Brazilian Space Agency. Sirius, a diffraction-limited storage ring synchrotron light source at the Laboratório Nacional de Luz Síncrotron, in Campinas, São Paulo. Technological research in Brazil is largely carried out in public universities and research institutes, with the majority of funding for basic research coming from various government agencies.[295] Brazil's most esteemed technological hubs are the Oswaldo Cruz Institute, the Butantan Institute, the Air Force's Aerospace Technical Center, the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation and the National Institute for Space Research.[296][297] The Brazilian Space Agency has the most advanced space program in Latin America, with significant resources to launch vehicles, and manufacture of satellites.[298] Owner of relative technological sophistication, the country develops submarines, aircraft, as well as being involved in space research, having a Vehicle Launch Center Light and being the only country in the Southern Hemisphere the integrate team building International Space Station (ISS).[299] The country is also a pioneer in the search for oil in deep water, from where it extracts 73% of its reserves. Uranium is enriched at the Resende Nuclear Fuel Factory, mostly for research purposes (as Brazil obtains 88% of its electricity from hydroelectricity[300]) and the country's first nuclear submarine is expected to be launched in 2029.[301] Brazil is one of the three countries in Latin America[302] with an operational Synchrotron Laboratory, a research facility on physics, chemistry, material science and life sciences, and Brazil is the only Latin American country to have a semiconductor company with its own fabrication plant, the CEITEC.[303] According to the Global Information Technology Report 2009–2010 of the World Economic Forum, Brazil is the world's 61st largest developer of information technology.[304] Brazil was ranked 57th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021, up from 66th in 2019.[305][306][307][308] Among the most renowned Brazilian inventors are priests Bartolomeu de Gusmão, Landell de Moura and Francisco João de Azevedo, besides Alberto Santos-Dumont,[309] Evaristo Conrado Engelberg,[310] Manuel Dias de Abreu,[311] Andreas Pavel[312] and Nélio José Nicolai.[313] Brazilian science is represented by the likes of César Lattes (Brazilian physicist Pathfinder of Pi Meson),[314] Mário Schenberg (considered the greatest theoretical physicist of Brazil),[315] José Leite Lopes (only Brazilian physicist holder of the UNESCO Science Prize),[316] Artur Ávila (the first Latin American winner of the Fields Medal)[317] and Fritz Müller (pioneer in factual support of the theory of evolution by Charles Darwin).[318] Transport Main article: Transport in Brazil Aerial view of the São Paulo–Guarulhos International Airport, the busiest airport in South America. BR-116 in Guapimirim, Rio de Janeiro, the longest highway in the country, with 4,385 km (2,725 mi) of extension.[319] Brazilian roads are the primary carriers of freight and passenger traffic. The road system totaled 1,720,000 km (1,068,758 mi) in 2019.[320] The total of paved roads increased from 35,496 km (22,056 mi) in 1967 to 215,000 km (133,595 mi) in 2018.[321][322] The country has about 14,000 km (8,699 mi) of divided highways, 5,000 km (3,107 mi) only in the State of São Paulo. Currently it's possible to travel from Rio Grande, in the extreme south of the country, to Brasília (2,580 km (1,603 mi)) or Casimiro de Abreu, in the state of Rio de Janeiro (2,045 km (1,271 mi)), only on divided highways. The first investments in road infrastructure have given up in the 1920s, the government of Washington Luís, being pursued in the governments of Getúlio Vargas and Eurico Gaspar Dutra.[323] President Juscelino Kubitschek (1956–61), who designed and built the capital Brasília, was another supporter of highways.[324] Brazil's railway system has been declining since 1945, when emphasis shifted to highway construction. The total length of railway track was 30,875 km (19,185 mi) in 2002, as compared with 31,848 km (19,789 mi) in 1970. Most of the railway system belonged to the Federal Railroad Corporation RFFSA, which was privatized in 2007.[325] The São Paulo Metro was the first underground transit system in Brazil. The other metro systems are in Rio de Janeiro, Porto Alegre, Recife, Belo Horizonte, Brasília, Salvador and Fortaleza. The country has an extensive rail network of 28,538 kilometers (17,733 miles) in length, the tenth largest network in the world.[326] Currently, the Brazilian government, unlike the past, seeks to encourage this mode of transport; an example of this incentive is the project of the Rio–São Paulo high-speed rail, that will connect the two main cities of the country to carry passengers. There are about 2,500 airports in Brazil, including landing fields: the second largest number in the world, after the United States.[327] São Paulo–Guarulhos International Airport, near São Paulo, is the largest and busiest airport with nearly 20 million passengers annually, while handling the vast majority of commercial traffic for the country.[328] For freight transport waterways are of importance, e.g. the industrial zones of Manaus can be reached only by means of the Solimões–Amazonas waterway (3,250 kilometers or 2,020 miles in length, with a minimum depth of six meters or 20 feet). The country also has 50,000 kilometers (31,000 miles) of waterways.[326] Coastal shipping links widely separated parts of the country. Bolivia and Paraguay have been given free ports at Santos. Of the 36 deep-water ports, Santos, Itajaí, Rio Grande, Paranaguá, Rio de Janeiro, Sepetiba, Vitória, Suape, Manaus and São Francisco do Sul are the most important.[329] Bulk carriers have to wait up to 18 days before being serviced, container ships 36.3 hours on average.[330] Energy Main article: Energy in Brazil The Itaipu Dam on the Paraná River, the second largest of the world. Brazilian energy matrix is one of the cleanest in the world. Wind farm in Parnaíba, Piauí. Brazil is one of the 10 largest producers of wind energy in the world Brazil is the world's tenth largest energy consumer with much of its energy coming from renewable sources, particularly hydroelectricity and ethanol; the Itaipu Dam is the world's largest hydroelectric plant by energy generation,[331] and the country has other large plants like Belo Monte and Tucuruí. The first car with an ethanol engine was produced in 1978 and the first airplane engine running on ethanol in 2005.[332] At the end of 2021 Brazil was the 2nd country in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (109.4 GW) and biomass (15.8 GW), the 7th country in the world in terms of installed wind power (21.1 GW) and the 14th country in the world in terms of installed solar power (13.0 GW) - on track to also become one of the top 10 in the world in solar energy.[333] At the end of 2021, Brazil was the 4th largest producer of wind energy in the world (72 TWh), behind only China, USA and Germany, and the 11th largest producer of solar energy in the world (16.8 TWh).[334] The main characteristic of the Brazilian energy matrix is that it is much more renewable than that of the world. While in 2019 the world matrix was only 14% made up of renewable energy, Brazil's was at 45%. Petroleum and oil products made up 34.3% of the matrix; sugar cane derivatives, 18%; hydraulic energy, 12.4%; natural gas, 12.2%; firewood and charcoal, 8.8%; varied renewable energies, 7%; mineral coal, 5.3%; nuclear, 1.4%, and other non-renewable energies, 0.6%.[335] In the electric energy matrix, the difference between Brazil and the world is even greater: while the world only had 25% of renewable electric energy in 2019, Brazil had 83%. The Brazilian electric matrix was composed of: hydraulic energy, 64.9%; biomass, 8.4%; wind energy, 8.6%; solar energy, 1%; natural gas, 9.3%; oil products, 2%; nuclear, 2.5%; coal and derivatives, 3.3%.[335] Brazil has the largest electricity sector in Latin America. Its capacity at the end of 2021 was 181,532 MW.[336] As for oil, the Brazilian government has embarked on a program over the decades to reduce dependence on imported oil, which previously accounted for more than 70% of the country's oil needs. Brazil became self-sufficient in oil in 2006–2007. In 2021, the country closed the year as the 7th oil producer in the world, with an average of close to 3 million barrels per day, becoming an exporter of the product.[337][338] Health Main articles: Health in Brazil and Sistema Único de Saúde SUS official symbol, the Brazilian publicly funded health care system The Brazilian public health system, the Unified Health System (Sistema Único de Saúde – SUS), is managed and provided by all levels of government,[339] being the largest system of this type in the world.[340] On the other hand, private healthcare systems play a complementary role.[341] Public health services are universal and offered to all citizens of the country for free. However, the construction and maintenance of health centers and hospitals are financed by taxes, and the country spends about 9% of its GDP on expenditures in the area. In 2012, Brazil had 1.85 doctors and 2.3 hospital beds for every 1,000 inhabitants.[342][343] Despite all the progress made since the creation of the universal health care system in 1988, there are still several public health problems in Brazil. In 2006, the main points to be solved were the high infant (2.51%) and maternal mortality rates (73.1 deaths per 1000 births).[344] The number of deaths from noncommunicable diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases (151.7 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants) and cancer (72.7 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants), also has a considerable impact on the health of the Brazilian population. Finally, external but preventable factors such as car accidents, violence and suicide caused 14.9% of all deaths in the country.[344] The Brazilian health system was ranked 125th among the 191 countries evaluated by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2000.[345] Education Main article: Education in Brazil Historical building of the Federal University of Paraná, one of the oldest universities in Brazil, located in Curitiba. The Federal Constitution and the Law of Guidelines and Bases of National Education determine that the Union, the states, the Federal District, and the municipalities must manage and organize their respective education systems. Each of these public educational systems is responsible for its own maintenance, which manages funds as well as the mechanisms and funding sources. The constitution reserves 25% of the state budget and 18% of federal taxes and municipal taxes for education.[346] According to the IBGE, in 2019, the literacy rate of the population was 93.4%, meaning that 11.3 million (6.6% of population) people are still illiterate in the country, with some states like Rio de Janeiro and Santa Catarina reaching around 97% of literacy rate;[347] functional illiteracy has reached 21.6% of the population.[348] Illiteracy is higher in the Northeast, where 13.87% of the population is illiterate, while the South, has 3.3% of its population illiterate.[349][347] Brazil's private institutions tend to be more exclusive and offer better quality education, so many high-income families send their children there. The result is a segregated educational system that reflects extreme income disparities and reinforces social inequality. However, efforts to change this are making impacts.[350] The University of São Paulo is the second best university in Latin America, according to recent 2019 QS World University Rankings. Of the top 20 Latin American universities, eight are Brazilian. Most of them are public. Attending an institution of higher education is required by Law of Guidelines and Bases of Education. Kindergarten, elementary and medium education are required of all students.[351] Media and communication Main articles: Telecommunications in Brazil and Television in Brazil See also: Concentration of media ownership § Brazil Former President Dilma Rousseff at Jornal Nacional news program. Rede Globo is the world's second-largest commercial television network.[352] The Brazilian press was officially born in Rio de Janeiro on 13 May 1808 with the creation of the Royal Printing National Press by the Prince Regent Dom João.[353] The Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro, the first newspaper published in the country, began to circulate on 10 September 1808.[354] The largest newspapers nowadays are Folha de S.Paulo, Super Notícia, O Globo and O Estado de S. Paulo.[355] Radio broadcasting began on 7 September 1922, with a speech by then President Pessoa, and was formalized on 20 April 1923 with the creation of "Radio Society of Rio de Janeiro".[356] Television in Brazil began officially on 18 September 1950, with the founding of TV Tupi by Assis Chateaubriand.[357] Since then television has grown in the country, creating large commercial broadcast networks such as Globo, SBT, RecordTV, Bandeirantes and RedeTV. Today it is the most important factor in popular culture of Brazilian society, indicated by research showing that as much as 67%[358][359] of the general population follow the same daily soap opera broadcast. Digital Television, using the SBTVD standard (based on the Japanese standard ISDB-T), was adopted on 29 June 2006 and launched on 2 November 2007.[360] In May 2010, the Brazilian government launched TV Brasil Internacional, an international television station, initially broadcasting to 49 countries.[361] Commercial television channels broadcast internationally include Globo Internacional, RecordTV Internacional and Band Internacional. Demographics Main articles: Demographics of Brazil and Brazilians See also: Immigration to Brazil and List of Brazilian states by population density Population density of Brazilian municipalities The population of Brazil, as recorded by the 2008 PNAD, was approximately 190 million[362] (22.31 inhabitants per square kilometer or 57.8/sq mi), with a ratio of men to women of 0.95:1[363] and 83.75% of the population defined as urban.[364] The population is heavily concentrated in the Southeastern (79.8 million inhabitants) and Northeastern (53.5 million inhabitants) regions, while the two most extensive regions, the Center-West and the North, which together make up 64.12% of the Brazilian territory, have a total of only 29.1 million inhabitants. The first census in Brazil was carried out in 1872 and recorded a population of 9,930,478.[365] From 1880 to 1930, 4 million Europeans arrived.[366] Brazil's population increased significantly between 1940 and 1970, because of a decline in the mortality rate, even though the birth rate underwent a slight decline. In the 1940s the annual population growth rate was 2.4%, rising to 3.0% in the 1950s and remaining at 2.9% in the 1960s, as life expectancy rose from 44 to 54 years[367] and to 72.6 years in 2007.[368] It has been steadily falling since the 1960s, from 3.04% per year between 1950 and 1960 to 1.05% in 2008 and is expected to fall to a negative value of –0.29% by 2050[369] thus completing the demographic transition.[370] In 2008, the illiteracy rate was 11.48%[371] and among the youth (ages 15–19) 1.74%. It was highest (20.30%) in the Northeast, which had a large proportion of rural poor.[372] Illiteracy was high (24.18%) among the rural population and lower (9.05%) among the urban population.[373] Race and ethnicity Main article: Race and ethnicity in Brazil Race and ethnicity in Brazil[374][375][376]   White (47.7%)   Pardo (Multiracial) (43.1%)   Black (7.6%)   East Asian (1.1%)   Natives (0.4%) According to the National Research by Household Sample (PNAD) of 2008, 48.43% of the population (about 92 million) described themselves as White; 43.80% (about 83 million) as Pardo (brown), 6.84% (about 13 million) as Black; 0.58% (about 1.1 million) as East Asian (officially called yellow or amarela); and 0.28% (about 536 thousand) as Amerindian (officially called indígena, Indigenous), while 0.07% (about 130 thousand) did not declare their race.[377] Since the arrival of the Portuguese in 1500, considerable genetic mixing between Amerindians, Europeans, and Africans has taken place in all regions of the country (with European ancestry being dominant nationwide according to the vast majority of all autosomal studies undertaken covering the entire population, accounting for between 65% to 77%).[378][379][380][381] From the 19th century, Brazil opened its borders to immigration. About five million people from over 60 countries migrated to Brazil between 1808 and 1972, most of them of Portuguese, Italian, Spanish, German, Ukrainian, Polish, Jewish, Russian, Chinese, Japanese, and Arab origin.[382][383] Brazil has the second largest Jewish community in Latin America making up 0.06% of its population.[384] Brazilian society is more markedly divided by social class lines, although a high income disparity is found between race groups, so racism and classism often overlap. Socially significant closeness to one racial group is taken in account more in the basis of appearance (phenotypes) rather than ancestry, to the extent that full siblings can pertain to different "racial" groups.[385] Socioeconomic factors are also significant, because a minority of pardos are likely to start declaring themselves White or Black if socially upward.[386] Skin color and facial features do not line quite well with ancestry (usually, Afro-Brazilians are evenly mixed and European ancestry is dominant in Whites and pardos with a significant non-European contribution, but the individual variation is great).[381][387][388][389] The brown population (officially called pardo in Portuguese, also colloquially moreno)[390][391] is a broad category that includes caboclos (assimilated Amerindians in general, and descendants of Whites and Natives), mulatos (descendants of primarily Whites and Afro-Brazilians) and cafuzos (descendants of Afro-Brazilians and Natives).[390][391][392][393][394] Higher percents of Blacks, mulattoes and tri-racials can be found in the eastern coast of the Northeastern region from Bahia to Paraíba[394][395] and also in northern Maranhão,[396][397] southern Minas Gerais[398] and in eastern Rio de Janeiro.[394][398] People of considerable Amerindian ancestry form the majority of the population in the Northern, Northeastern and Center-Western regions.[399] In 2007, the National Indian Foundation estimated that Brazil has 67 different uncontacted tribes, up from their estimate of 40 in 2005. Brazil is believed to have the largest number of uncontacted peoples in the world.[400] Religion Main article: Religion in Brazil Further information: Catholic Church in Brazil and Protestantism in Brazil Religion in Brazil (2010 Census)   Catholicism (64.6%)   Protestantism (22.2%)   Spiritism (2.0%)   Other (3.2%)   No religion (8.0%) Roman Catholicism is the country's predominant faith. Brazil has the world's largest Catholic population.[401][402] According to the 2010 Demographic Census (the PNAD survey does not inquire about religion), 64.63% of the population followed Roman Catholicism; 22.2% Protestantism; 2.0% Kardecist spiritism; 3.2% other religions, undeclared or undetermined; while 8.0% have no religion.[2] Religion in Brazil was formed from the meeting of the Catholic Church with the religious traditions of enslaved African peoples and indigenous peoples.[403] This confluence of faiths during the Portuguese colonization of Brazil led to the development of a diverse array of syncretistic practices within the overarching umbrella of Brazilian Catholic Church, characterized by traditional Portuguese festivities,[404] Religious pluralism increased during the 20th century,[405] and the Protestant community has grown to include over 22% of the population.[406] The most common Protestant denominations are Evangelical Pentecostal ones. Other Protestant branches with a notable presence in the country include the Baptists, Seventh-day Adventists, Lutherans and the Reformed tradition.[407] However, in the last ten years Protestantism, particularly in forms of Pentecostalism and Evangelicalism, has spread in Brazil, while the proportion of Catholics has dropped significantly.[408] After Protestantism, individuals professing no religion are also a significant group, exceeding 8% of the population as of the 2010 census. The cities of Boa Vista, Salvador, and Porto Velho have the greatest proportion of Irreligious residents in Brazil. Teresina, Fortaleza, and Florianópolis were the most Roman Catholic in the country.[409] Greater Rio de Janeiro, not including the city proper, is the most irreligious and least Roman Catholic Brazilian periphery, while Greater Porto Alegre and Greater Fortaleza are on the opposite sides of the lists, respectively.[409] In October 2009, the Brazilian Senate approved and enacted by the President of Brazil in February 2010, an agreement with the Vatican, in which the Legal Statute of the Catholic Church in Brazil is recognized. The agreement confirmed norms that were normally complied with regarding religious education in public elementary schools (which also ensures the teaching of other beliefs), marriage and spiritual assistance in prisons and hospitals. The project was criticized by parliamentarians who understood the end of the secular state with the approval of the agreement.[410][411] Language Main articles: Languages of Brazil, Portuguese language, Brazilian Portuguese, and List of endangered languages in Brazil Museum of the Portuguese Language in São Paulo The official language of Brazil is Portuguese (Article 13 of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Brazil), which almost all of the population speaks and is virtually the only language used in newspapers, radio, television, and for business and administrative purposes. Brazil is the only Portuguese-speaking nation in the Americas, making the language an important part of Brazilian national identity and giving it a national culture distinct from those of its Spanish-speaking neighbors.[412] Brazilian Portuguese has had its own development, mostly similar to 16th-century Central and Southern dialects of European Portuguese[413] (despite a very substantial number of Portuguese colonial settlers, and more recent immigrants, coming from Northern regions, and in minor degree Portuguese Macaronesia), with a few influences from the Amerindian and African languages, especially West African and Bantu restricted to the vocabulary only.[414] As a result, the language is somewhat different, mostly in phonology, from the language of Portugal and other Portuguese-speaking countries (the dialects of the other countries, partly because of the more recent end of Portuguese colonialism in these regions, have a closer connection to contemporary European Portuguese). These differences are comparable to those between American and British English.[414] The sign language law legally recognized in 2002,[415] (the law was regulated in 2005)[416] the use of the Brazilian Sign Language, more commonly known by its Portuguese acronym LIBRAS, in education and government services. The language must be taught as a part of the education and speech and language pathology curricula. LIBRAS teachers, instructors and translators are recognized professionals. Schools and health services must provide access ("inclusion") to deaf people.[417] In the region of Pomerode, Santa Catarina, Hunsrückisch and East Pomeranian are two of the minor languages (see Brazilian German). Minority languages are spoken throughout the nation. One hundred and eighty Amerindian languages are spoken in remote areas and a significant number of other languages are spoken by immigrants and their descendants.[414] In the municipality of São Gabriel da Cachoeira, Nheengatu (a currently endangered South American creole language – or an 'anti-creole', according to some linguists – with mostly Indigenous Brazilian languages lexicon and Portuguese-based grammar that, together with its southern relative língua geral paulista, once was a major lingua franca in Brazil,[418] being replaced by Portuguese only after governmental prohibition led by major political changes)[excessive detail?], Baniwa and Tucano languages had been granted co-official status with Portuguese.[419] There are significant communities of German (mostly the Brazilian Hunsrückisch, a High German language dialect) and Italian (mostly the Talian, a Venetian dialect) origins in the Southern and Southeastern regions, whose ancestors' native languages were carried along to Brazil, and which, still alive there, are influenced by the Portuguese language.[420][421] Talian is officially a historic patrimony of Rio Grande do Sul,[422] and two German dialects possess co-official status in a few municipalities.[423] Italian is also recognized as ethnic language in the Santa Teresa microregion and Vila Velha (Espirito Santo state), and is taught as mandatory second language at school.[424] Urbanization Main article: List of cities in Brazil by population According to IBGE (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics) urban areas already concentrate 84.35% of the population, while the Southeast region remains the most populated one, with over 80 million inhabitants.[425] The largest urban agglomerations in Brazil are São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte – all in the Southeastern Region – with 21.1, 12.3, and 5.1 million inhabitants respectively.[426][427][428] The majority of state capitals are the largest cities in their states, except for Vitória, the capital of Espírito Santo, and Florianópolis, the capital of Santa Catarina.[429]  vte Largest urban agglomerations in Brazil 2017 Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics estimates[426][430][431] Rank Name State Pop. Rank Name State Pop. São Paulo São Paulo Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro 1 São Paulo São Paulo 21,314,716 11 Belém Pará 2,157,180 Belo Horizonte Belo Horizonte Recife Recife 2 Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro 12,389,775 12 Manaus Amazonas 2,130,264 3 Belo Horizonte Minas Gerais 5,142,260 13 Campinas São Paulo 2,105,600 4 Recife Pernambuco 4,021,641 14 Vitória Espírito Santo 1,837,047 5 Brasília Federal District 3,986,425 15 Baixada Santista São Paulo 1,702,343 6 Porto Alegre Rio Grande do Sul 3,894,232 16 São José dos Campos São Paulo 1,572,943 7 Salvador Bahia 3,863,154 17 São Luís Maranhão 1,421,569 8 Fortaleza Ceará 3,594,924 18 Natal Rio Grande do Norte 1,349,743 9 Curitiba Paraná 3,387,985 19 Maceió Alagoas 1,231,965 10 Goiânia Goiás 2,347,557 20 João Pessoa Paraíba 1,168,941 Culture Main article: Culture of Brazil Parade of Portela samba school at the Rio Carnival, the largest carnival in the world[432] The core culture of Brazil is derived from Portuguese culture, because of its strong colonial ties with the Portuguese Empire.[433] Among other influences, the Portuguese introduced the Portuguese language, Roman Catholicism and colonial architectural styles. The culture was, however, also strongly influenced by African, indigenous and non-Portuguese European cultures and traditions.[434] Some aspects of Brazilian culture were influenced by the contributions of Italian, German and other European as well as Japanese, Jewish and Arab immigrants who arrived in large numbers in the South and Southeast of Brazil during the 19th and 20th centuries.[435] The indigenous Amerindians influenced Brazil's language and cuisine; and the Africans influenced language, cuisine, music, dance and religion.[436] Brazilian art has developed since the 16th century into different styles that range from Baroque (the dominant style in Brazil until the early 19th century)[437][438] to Romanticism, Modernism, Expressionism, Cubism, Surrealism and Abstractionism. Brazilian cinema dates back to the birth of the medium in the late 19th century and has gained a new level of international acclaim since the 1960s.[439] Architecture Main article: Architecture of Brazil The Cathedral of Brasilia, designed by Brazilian architect Oscar Niemeyer for the federal capital, an example of Modern architecture The architecture of Brazil is influenced by Europe, especially Portugal. It has a history that goes back 500 years to the time when Pedro Álvares Cabral landed in Brazil in 1500. Portuguese colonial architecture was the first wave of architecture to go to Brazil.[440] It is the basis for all Brazilian architecture of later centuries.[441] In the 19th century during the time of the Empire of Brazil, the country followed European trends and adopted Neoclassical and Gothic Revival architecture. Then in the 20th century especially in Brasilia, Brazil experimented with Modernist architecture. The colonial architecture of Brazil dates to the early 16th century when Brazil was first explored, conquered and settled by the Portuguese. The Portuguese built architecture familiar to them in Europe in their aim to colonize Brazil. They built Portuguese colonial architecture which included churches, civic architecture including houses and forts in Brazilian cities and the countryside. During 19th century, Brazilian architecture saw the introduction of more European styles to Brazil such as Neoclassical and Gothic Revival architecture. This was usually mixed with Brazilian influences from their own heritage which produced a unique form of Brazilian architecture. In the 1950s, the modernist architecture was introduced when Brasilia was built as new federal capital in the interior of Brazil to help develop the interior. The architect Oscar Niemeyer idealized and built government buildings, churches and civic buildings in the modernist style.[442][443] Music Main article: Music of Brazil Tom Jobim, one of the creators of bossa nova, and Chico Buarque, one of the leading names of MPB. The music of Brazil was formed mainly from the fusion of European, Native Indigenous, and African elements.[444] Until the nineteenth century, Portugal was the gateway to most of the influences that built Brazilian music, although many of these elements were not of Portuguese origin, but generally European. The first was José Maurício Nunes Garcia, author of sacred pieces with influence of Viennese classicism.[445] The major contribution of the African element was the rhythmic diversity and some dances and instruments that had a bigger role in the development of popular music and folk, flourishing especially in the twentieth century.[444] Popular music since the late eighteenth century began to show signs of forming a characteristically Brazilian sound, with samba considered the most typical and on the UNESCO cultural heritage list.[446] Maracatu and Afoxê are two music traditions that have been popularized by their appearance in the annual Brazilian Carnivals.[447] Capoeira is usually played with its own music referred to as capoeira music, which is usually considered to be a call-and-response type of folk music.[448] Forró is a type of folk music prominent during the Festa Junina in northeastern Brazil.[449] Jack A. Draper III, a professor of Portuguese at the University of Missouri,[450] argues that Forró was used as a way to subdue feelings of nostalgia for a rural lifestyle.[451] Choro is a very popular music instrumental style. Its origins are in 19th-century Rio de Janeiro. In spite of the name, the style often has a fast and happy rhythm, characterized by virtuosity, improvisation, subtle modulations and full of syncopation and counterpoint.[452] Bossa nova is also a well-known style of Brazilian music developed and popularized in the 1950s and 1960s.[453] The phrase "bossa nova" means literally "new trend".[454] A lyrical fusion of samba and jazz, bossa nova acquired a large following starting in the 1960s.[455] Literature Main article: Brazilian literature Machado de Assis, poet and novelist, founder of the Brazilian Academy of Letters. Brazilian literature dates back to the 16th century, to the writings of the first Portuguese explorers in Brazil, such as Pêro Vaz de Caminha, filled with descriptions of fauna, flora and commentary about the indigenous population that fascinated European readers.[456] Brazil produced significant works in Romanticism – novelists like Joaquim Manuel de Macedo and José de Alencar wrote novels about love and pain. Alencar, in his long career, also treated indigenous people as heroes in the Indigenist novels O Guarani, Iracema and Ubirajara.[457] Machado de Assis, one of his contemporaries, wrote in virtually all genres and continues to gain international prestige from critics worldwide.[458][459][460] Brazilian Modernism, evidenced by the Modern Art Week in 1922, was concerned with a nationalist avant-garde literature,[461] while Post-Modernism brought a generation of distinct poets like João Cabral de Melo Neto, Carlos Drummond de Andrade, Vinicius de Moraes, Cora Coralina, Graciliano Ramos, Cecília Meireles, and internationally known writers dealing with universal and regional subjects like Jorge Amado, João Guimarães Rosa, Clarice Lispector and Manuel Bandeira.[462][463][464] Cuisine Main article: Brazilian cuisine See also: List of Brazilian dishes Feijoada is one of the main dishes of Brazilian cuisine Brazilian cuisine varies greatly by region, reflecting the country's varying mix of indigenous and immigrant populations. This has created a national cuisine marked by the preservation of regional differences.[465] Examples are Feijoada, considered the country's national dish;[466] and regional foods such as beiju, feijão tropeiro, vatapá, moqueca, polenta (from Italian cuisine) and acarajé (from African cuisine).[467] The national beverage is coffee and cachaça is Brazil's native liquor. Cachaça is distilled from sugar cane and is the main ingredient in the national cocktail, Caipirinha.[468] A typical meal consists mostly of rice and beans with beef, salad, french fries and a fried egg.[469] Often, it is mixed with cassava flour (farofa). Fried potatoes, fried cassava, fried banana, fried meat and fried cheese are very often eaten in lunch and served in most typical restaurants.[470] Popular snacks are pastel (a fried pastry); coxinha (a variation of chicken croquete); pão de queijo (cheese bread and cassava flour / tapioca); pamonha (corn and milk paste); esfirra (a variation of Lebanese pastry); kibbeh (from Arabic cuisine); empanada (pastry) and empada, little salt pies filled with shrimps or heart of palm. Brazil has a variety of desserts such as brigadeiros (chocolate fudge balls), bolo de rolo (roll cake with goiabada), cocada (a coconut sweet), beijinhos (coconut truffles and clove) and romeu e julieta (cheese with goiabada). Peanuts are used to make paçoca, rapadura and pé-de-moleque. Local common fruits like açaí, cupuaçu, mango, papaya, cocoa, cashew, guava, orange, lime, passionfruit, pineapple, and hog plum are turned in juices and used to make chocolates, ice pops and ice cream.[471] Cinema Main article: Cinema of Brazil Festival de Gramado, the biggest film festival in the country The Brazilian film industry began in the late 19th century, during the early days of the Belle Époque. While there were national film productions during the early 20th century, American films such as Rio the Magnificent were made in Rio de Janeiro to promote tourism in the city.[472] The films Limite (1931) and Ganga Bruta (1933), the latter being produced by Adhemar Gonzaga through the prolific studio Cinédia, were poorly received at release and failed at the box office, but are acclaimed nowadays and placed among the finest Brazilian films of all time.[473] The 1941 unfinished film It's All True was divided in four segments, two of which were filmed in Brazil and directed by Orson Welles; it was originally produced as part of the United States' Good Neighbor Policy during Getúlio Vargas' Estado Novo government. During the 1960s, the Cinema Novo movement rose to prominence with directors such as Glauber Rocha, Nelson Pereira dos Santos, Paulo Cesar Saraceni and Arnaldo Jabor. Rocha's films Deus e o Diabo na Terra do Sol (1964) and Terra em Transe (1967) are considered to be some of the greatest and most influential in Brazilian film history.[474] During the 1990s, Brazil saw a surge of critical and commercial success with films such as O Quatrilho (Fábio Barreto, 1995), O Que É Isso, Companheiro? (Bruno Barreto, 1997) and Central do Brasil (Walter Salles, 1998), all of which were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, the latter receiving a Best Actress nomination for Fernanda Montenegro. The 2002 crime film City of God, directed by Fernando Meirelles, was critically acclaimed, scoring 90% on Rotten Tomatoes,[475] being placed in Roger Ebert's Best Films of the Decade list[476] and receiving four Academy Award nominations in 2004, including Best Director. Notable film festivals in Brazil include the São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro International Film Festivals and the Gramado Festival. Theatre Augusto Boal presenting a workshop on the Theatre of the Oppressed at Riverside Church in New York City in 2008 The theatre in Brazil has its origins in the period of Jesuit expansion when theater was used for the dissemination of Catholic doctrine in the 16th century. in the 17th and 18th centuries the first dramatists who appeared on the scene of European derivation was for court or private performances.[477] During the 19th century, dramatic theater gained importance and thickness, whose first representative was Luis Carlos Martins Pena (1813–1848), capable of describing contemporary reality. Always in this period the comedy of costume and comic production was imposed. Significant, also in the nineteenth century, was also the playwright Antônio Gonçalves Dias.[478] There were also numerous operas and orchestras. The Brazilian conductor Antônio Carlos Gomes became internationally known with operas like Il Guarany. At the end of the 19th century orchestrated dramaturgias became very popular and were accompanied with songs of famous artists like the conductress Chiquinha Gonzaga.[479] Already in the early 20th century there was the presence of theaters, entrepreneurs and actor companies, but paradoxically the quality of the products staggered, and only in 1940 the Brazilian theater received a boost of renewal thanks to the action of Paschoal Carlos Magno and his student's theater, the comedians group and the Italian actors Adolfo Celi, Ruggero Jacobbi and Aldo Calvo, founders of the Teatro Brasileiro de Comedia. From the 1960s it was attended by a theater dedicated to social and religious issues and to the flourishing of schools of dramatic art. The most prominent authors at this stage were Jorge Andrade and Ariano Suassuna.[478] Visual arts Main article: Brazilian painting Candido Portinari in 1962, one of the most important Brazilian painters Brazilian painting emerged in the late 16th century,[480] influenced by Baroque, Rococo, Neoclassicism, Romanticism, Realism, Modernism, Expressionism, Surrealism, Cubism and Abstracionism making it a major art style called Brazilian academic art.[481][482] The French Artistic Mission arrived in Brazil in 1816 proposing the creation of an art academy modeled after the respected Académie des Beaux-Arts, with graduation courses both for artists and craftsmen for activities such as modeling, decorating, carpentry and others and bringing artists like Jean-Baptiste Debret.[482] Upon the creation of the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts, new artistic movements spread across the country during the 19th century and later the event called Modern Art Week definitely broke with academic tradition in 1922 and started a nationalist trend which was influenced by modernist arts. Among the best-known Brazilian painters are Ricardo do Pilar and Manuel da Costa Ataíde (baroque and rococo), Victor Meirelles, Pedro Américo and Almeida Júnior (romanticism and realism), Anita Malfatti, Ismael Nery, Lasar Segall, Emiliano di Cavalcanti, Vicente do Rego Monteiro, and Tarsila do Amaral (expressionism, surrealism and cubism), Aldo Bonadei, José Pancetti and Cândido Portinari (modernism).[483] Sports Main article: Sport in Brazil See also: Brazil at the Olympics Players at the podium with the first Olympic Gold of the Brazil national football team, won in the 2016 Summer Olympics. Football is the most popular sport in the country. The most popular sport in Brazil is football.[484] The Brazilian men's national team is ranked among the best in the world according to the FIFA World Rankings, and has won the World Cup tournament a record five times.[485][486] Volleyball, basketball, auto racing, and martial arts also attract large audiences. The Brazil men's national volleyball team, for example, currently holds the titles of the World League, World Grand Champions Cup, World Championship and the World Cup. In auto racing, three Brazilian drivers have won the Formula One world championship eight times.[487][488][489] The country has also produced significant achievements in other sports such as sailing, swimming, tennis, surfing, skateboarding, MMA, gymnastics, boxing, judo, athletics and table tennis. Some sport variations have their origins in Brazil: beach football,[490] futsal (indoor football)[491] and footvolley emerged in Brazil as variations of football. In martial arts, Brazilians developed Capoeira,[492] Vale tudo,[493] and Brazilian jiu-jitsu.[494] Brazil has hosted several high-profile international sporting events, like the 1950 FIFA World Cup[495] and recently has hosted the 2014 FIFA World Cup, 2019 Copa América and 2021 Copa América .[496] The São Paulo circuit, Autódromo José Carlos Pace, hosts the annual Grand Prix of Brazil.[497] São Paulo organized the IV Pan American Games in 1963, and Rio de Janeiro hosted the XV Pan American Games in 2007.[498] On 2 October 2009, Rio de Janeiro was selected to host the 2016 Olympic Games and 2016 Paralympic Games, making it the first South American city to host the games[499] and second in Latin America, after Mexico City. Furthermore, the country hosted the FIBA Basketball World Cups in 1954 and 1963. At the 1963 event, the Brazil national basketball team won one of its two world championship titles.[500] John Albert, a former news photographer who had operated the. Graphic Arts Photo Service since 1953, died of cancer on Monday in Mount Sinai Hospital. He was 61 years old and lived at 150 West 96th Street. Mr. Albert, a native New Yorker, was with The Associated Press from 1934 to 1940, during which time he was charter member and organizer of the Newspaper Guild. Subsequently he was briefly with Friday magazine and from 1941 to 1950 with P.M. He had been a member of the New York Press Photographers since 1946, Surviving are his widow, the former Jane Poad, and two sons, Jeff. and Eric.

PicClick Insights - Dutra De Brasil En Manhattan 1949 Presidente 12 Negativos Fotógrafo Famoso PicClick Exclusivo

  •  Popularidad - 0 seguidores, 0.0 nuevos seguidores por día, 25 days for sale on eBay. 0 vendidos, 1 disponible.
  •  Mejor Precio -
  •  Vendedor - 808+ artículos vendidos. 0% votos negativos. Gran vendedor con la regeneración positiva muy buena y sobre 50 calificaciones.

La Gente También Amó PicClick Exclusivo